論文

Changes in neural activity induced by learning and novel environments have been reported to lead to the formation of new synapses in the adult brain. However, the underlying molecular mechanism is not well understood. Here, we show that Purkinje cells (PCs), which have established adult-type monosynaptic innervation by climbing fibers (CFs) after elimination of weak CFs during development, can be reinnervated by multiple CFs by increased expression of the synaptic organizer C1ql1 in CFs or Bai3, a receptor for C1ql1, in PCs. In the adult cerebellum, CFs are known to have transverse branches that run in a mediolateral direction without forming synapses with PCs. Electrophysiological, Ca2+-imaging and immunohistochemical studies showed that overexpression of C1ql1 or Bai3 caused these CF transverse branches to elongate and synapse on the distal dendrites of mature PCs. Mature PCs were also reinnervated by multiple CFs when the glutamate receptor GluD2, which is essential for the maintenance of synapses between granule cells and PCs, was deleted. Interestingly, the effect of GluD2 knockout was not observed in Bai3 knockout PCs. In addition, C1ql1 levels were significantly upregulated in CFs of GluD2 knockout mice, suggesting that endogenous, not overexpressed, C1ql1-Bai3 signaling could regulate the reinnervation of mature PCs by CFs. Furthermore, the effects of C1ql1 and Bai3 overexpression required neuronal activity in the PC and CF, respectively. C1ql1 immunoreactivity at CF-PC synapses was reduced when the neuronal activity of CFs was suppressed. These results suggest that C1ql1-Bai3 signaling may mediate CF synaptogenesis in mature PCs, potentially in concert with neuronal activity.

Cbln1 (a.k.a. precerebellin) is secreted from cerebellar granule cells as homohexamer or in heteromeric complexes with Cbln3. Cbln1 plays crucial roles in regulating morphological integrity of parallel fiber (PF)-Purkinje cell (PC) synapses and synaptic plasticity. Cbln1-knockout mice display severe cerebellar phenotypes that are essentially indistinguishable from those in glutamate receptor GluRδ2-null mice, and include severe reduction in the number of PF-PC synapses and loss of long-term depression of synaptic transmission. To understand better the relationship between Cbln1, Cbln3 and GluRδ2, we performed light and electron microscopic immunohistochemical analyses using highly specific antibodies and antigen-exposing methods, i.e. pepsin pretreatment for light microscopy and postembedding immunogold for electron microscopy. In conventional immunohistochemistry, Cbln1 was preferentially associated with non-terminal portions of PF axons in the molecular layer but rarely overlapped with Cbln3. In contrast, antigen-exposing methods not only greatly intensified Cbln1 immunoreactivity in the molecular layer, but also revealed its high accumulation in the synaptic cleft of PF-PC synapses. No such synaptic accumulation was evident at other PC synapses. Furthermore, Cbln1 now came to overlap almost completely with Cbln3 and GluRδ2 at PF-PC synapses. Therefore, the convergence of all three molecules provides the anatomical basis for a common signaling pathway regulating circuit development and synaptic plasticity in the cerebellum. © The Authors (2009).

Neurons are highly polarized cells composed of two distinct domains, the axon and the somatodendritic domain. Although AMPA-type glutamate receptors, which mediate fast excitatory neurotransmission in the vertebrate CNS, are preferentially expressed in the somatodendritic domain, the molecular mechanisms underlying such polarized distribution have remained elusive. We recently demonstrated that adaptor protein complex-4 (AP-4) binds to transmembrane AMPA receptor regulatory proteins (TARPs), thereby mediating the selective trafficking of AMPA receptors to the somatodendritic domain; generic disruption of AP-4 (AP-4β-/-), results in the mislocalization of TARPs and AMPA receptors in the axons. Similarly, low-density lipoprotein receptors and δ2 glutamate receptors are mislocalized in axons, while other cargos, such as NMDA receptors and metabotropic glutamate receptors, are properly excluded from AP-4β-/- axons. These findings indicate that there exist AP-4-dependent and -independent sorting mechanisms. Unexpectedly, mislocalized AMPA receptors do not reach the cell surface and accumulate in autophagosomes in the bulging portions of AP-4β-/- axons. Several lines of evidence indicate that mislocalized AMPA receptors activate the autophagic pathway. Since increased autophagy and axonal swelling are suggested to occur in various neuronal disorders, further studies using AP-4β-/- mice are warranted to understand the mechanisms regulating autophagy in axons. ©2008 Landes Bioscience.

The Lurcher mouse was first discovered in 1954 as a spontaneously occurring autosomal dominant mutation that caused the degeneration of virtually all cerebellar Purkinje cells and most olivary neurons and granule cells. More recent molecular studies revealed that Lurcher is a gain of function mutation in the δ2 glutamate receptor (GluRδ2) that converts an alanine to threonine in the highly conserved third hydrophobic segment of GluRδ2. The mutation converts the receptor into a constitutively leaky cation channel. The GluRδ2 receptor is predominantly expressed in cerebellar Purkinje cells and in the heterozygous Lurcher mutant (+/Lc). Purkinje cells die due to the mutation in the GluRδ2 receptor, while olivary neurons and granule cells degenerate due to the loss of their Purkinje cell targets. The purpose of the review is to provide highlights from 5 decades of research on the Lurcher mutant that have provided insights into the developmental mechanisms that regulate cell number during development, cerebellar pattern formation, cerebellar physiology, and the role of the cerebellum in CNS function. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Ca2+-dependent activator protein for secretion 2 (CAPS2/CADPS2) is a secretory granule-associated protein that is abundant at the parallel fiber terminals of granule cells in the mouse cerebellum and is involved in the release of neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), both of which are required for cerebellar development. The human homolog gene on chromosome 7 is located within susceptibility locus 1 of autism, a disease characterized by several cerebellar morphological abnormalities. Here we report that CAPS2 knock-out mice are deficient in the release of NT-3 and BDNF, and they consequently exhibit suppressed phosphorylation of Trk receptors in the cerebellum; these mice exhibit pronounced impairments in cerebellar development and functions, including neuronal survival, differentiation and migration of postmitotic granule cells, dendritogenesis of Purkinje cells, lobulation between lobules VI and VII, structure and vesicular distribution of parallel fiber-Purkinje cell synapses, paired-pulse facilitation at parallel fiber-Purkinje cell synapses, rotarod motor coordination, and eye movement plasticity in optokinetic training. Increased granule cell death of the external granular layer was noted in lobules VI-VII and IX, in which high BDNF and NT-3 levels are specifically localized during cerebellar development. Therefore, the deficiency of CAPS2 indicates that CAPS2-mediated neurotrophin release is indispensable for normal cerebellar development and functions, including neuronal differentiation and survival, morphogenesis, synaptic function, and motor leaning/control. The possible involvement of the CAPS2 gene in the cerebellar deficits of autistic patients is discussed. Copyright © 2007 Society for Neuroscience.

Cbln1 belongs to the C1q and tumour necrosis factor superfamily, and plays crucial roles as a cerebellar granule cell-derived transneuronal regulator for synapse integrity and plasticity in Purkinje cells. Although Cbln2-Cbln4 are also expressed in the brain and could form heteromeric complexes with Cbln1, their precise expressions remain unclear. Here, we investigated gene expression of the Cbln family in developing and adult C57BL mouse brains by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), Northern blot, and high-resolution in situ hybridization (ISH) analyses. In the adult brain, spatial patterns of mRNA expression were highly differential depending on Cbln subtypes. Notably, particularly high levels of Cbln mRNAs were expressed in some nuclei and neurons, whereas their postsynaptic targets often lacked or were low for any Cbln mRNAs, as seen for cerebellar granule cells/Purkinje cells, entorhinal cortex/hippocampus, intralaminar group of thalamic nuclei/caudate-putamen, and dorsal nucleus of the lateral lemniscus/central nucleus of the inferior colliculus. In the developing brain, Cbln1, 2, and 4 mRNAs appeared as early as embryonic day 10-13, and exhibited transient up-regulation during the late embryonic and neonatal periods. For example, Cbln2 mRNA was expressed in the cortical plate of the developing neocortex, displaying a high rostromedial to low caudolateral gradient. In contrast, Cbln3 mRNA was selective to cerebellar granule cells throughout development, and its onset was as late as postnatal day 7-10. These results will provide a molecular-anatomical basis for future studies that characterize roles played by the Cbln family. © The Authors (2006).

The small GTP-binding protein Rab8 is known to play an essential role in intracellular transport and cilia formation. We have previously demonstrated that Rab8a is required for localising apical markers in various organisms. Rab8a has a closely related isoform, Rab8b. To determine whether Rab8b can compensate for Rab8a, we generated Rab8b-knockout mice. Although the Rab8b-knockout mice did not display an overt phenotype, Rab8a and Rab8b double-knockout mice exhibited mislocalisation of apical markers and died earlier than Rab8a-knockout mice. The apical markers accumulated in three intracellular patterns in the double-knockout mice. However, the localisation of basolateral and/or dendritic markers of the double-knockout mice seemed normal. The morphology and the length of various primary and/or motile cilia, and the frequency of ciliated cells appeared to be identical in control and double-knockout mice. However, an additional knockdown of Rab10 in double-knockout cells greatly reduced the percentage of ciliated cells. Our results highlight the compensatory effect of Rab8a and Rab8b in apical transport, and the complexity of the apical transport process. In addition, neither Rab8a nor Rab8b are required for basolateral and/or dendritic transport. However, simultaneous loss of Rab8a and Rab8b has little effect on ciliogenesis, whereas additional loss of Rab10 greatly affects ciliogenesis. © 2014. Published by The Company of Biologists Ltd.

Differentiation of pre- and postsynaptic sites is coordinated by reciprocal interaction across synaptic clefts. At parallel fiber (PF)-Purkinje cell (PC) synapses, dendritic spines are autonomously formed without PF influence. However, little is known about how presynaptic structural changes are induced and how they lead to differentiation of mature synapses. Here, we show that Cbln1 released from PFs induces dynamic structural changes in PFs by a mechanism that depends on postsynaptic glutamate receptor delta2 (GluD2) and presynaptic neurexin (Nrx). Time-lapse imaging in organotypic culture and ultrastructural analyses in vivo revealed that Nrx-Cbln1-GluD2 signaling induces PF protrusions that often formed circular structures and encapsulated PC spines. Such structural changes in PFs were associated with the accumulation of synaptic vesicles and GluD2, leading to formation of mature synapses. Thus, PF protrusions triggered by Nrx-Cbln1-GluD2 signaling may promote bidirectional maturation of PF-PC synapses by a positive feedback mechanism

The cerebellum plays a fundamental, but as yet poorly understood, role in the control of locomotion. Recently, mice with gene mutations or knockouts have been used to investigate various aspects of cerebellar function with regard to locomotion. Although many of the mutant mice exhibit severe gait ataxia, kinematic analyses of limb movements have been performed in only a few cases. Here, we investigated locomotion in ho15J mice that have a mutation of the δ2 glutamate receptor. The cerebellum of ho15J mice shows a severe reduction in the number of parallel fiber-Purkinje synapses compared with wild-type mice. Analysis of hindlimb kinematics during treadmill locomotion showed abnormal hindlimb movements characterized by excessive toe elevation during the swing phase, and by severe hyperflexion of the ankles in ho15J mice. The great trochanter heights in ho15J mice were lower than in wild-type mice throughout the step cycle. However, there were no significant differences in various temporal parameters between ho15J and wild-type mice. We suggest that dysfunction of the cerebellar neuronal circuits underlies the observed characteristic kinematic abnormality of hindlimb movements during locomotion of ho15J mice. © 2012 Takeuchi et al.

NMDA receptor activation leads to clathrin-dependent endocytosis of postsynaptic AMPA receptors. Although this process controls long-term depression (LTD) induction in the hippocampus, how it is regulated by neuronal activities is not completely clear. Here, we show that Ca 2+ influx through the NMDA receptor activates calcineurin and protein phosphatase 1 to dephosphorylate phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinaseγ661 (PIP5Kγ661), the major phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P 2)-producing enzyme in the brain. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation analysis revealed that the dephosphorylated PIP5Kγ661 became associated with the clathrin adaptor protein complex AP-2 atpostsynapses insitu. NMDA-induced AMPA receptor endocytosis and low-frequency stimulation-induced LTD were completely blocked by inhibiting the association between dephosphorylated PIP5Kγ661 and AP-2 and by overexpression ofa kinase-dead PIP5Kγ661 mutant in hippocampal neurons. Furthermore, knockdown of PIP5Kγ661 inhibited the NMDA-induced AMPA receptor endocytosis. Therefore, NMDA receptor activation controls AMPA receptor endocytosis during hippocampal LTD by regulating PIP5Kγ661 activity at postsynapses. AMPA receptor endocytosis is essential for LTD induction, but it is not clear how this process is controlled. Unoki etal. find that NMDA receptor activation controls AMPA receptor endocytosis during hippocampal LTD by regulating the activity of the enzyme PIP5Kγ661. © 2012 Elsevier Inc.

Loss of one type of sensory input can cause improved functionality of other sensory systems. Whereas this form of plasticity, cross-modal plasticity, is well established, the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying it are still unclear. Here, we show that visual deprivation (VD) increases extracellular serotonin in the juvenile rat barrel cortex. This increase in serotonin levels facilitates synaptic strengthening at layer 4 to layer 2/3 synapses within the barrel cortex. Upon VD, whisker experience leads to trafficking of the AMPA-type glutamate receptors (AMPARs) into these synapses through the activation of ERK and increased phosphorylation of AMPAR subunit GluR1 at the juvenile age when natural whisker experience no longer induces synaptic GluR1 delivery. VD thereby leads to sharpening of the functional whisker-barrel map at layer 2/3. Thus, sensory deprivation of one modality leads to serotonin release in remaining modalities, facilitates GluR1-dependent synaptic strengthening, and refines cortical organization. © 2011 Elsevier Inc.

Ionotropic glutamate receptors mediate most excitatory neurotransmission in the central nervous system by opening ion channels upon the binding of glutamate. Despite the essential roles of glutamate in the control of reproduction and anterior pituitary hormone secretion, there is a limited understanding of how glutamate receptors control ovulation. Here we reveal the function of the ionotropic glutamate receptor AMPA-1 (GRIA1) in ovulation. Based on a genome-wide association study in Bos taurus, we found that ovulation rate is influenced by a variation in the N-terminal leucine/ isoleucine/valine-binding protein (LIVBP) domain of GRIA1, in which serine is replaced by asparagine. GRIA1Asn has a weaker affinity to glutamate than GRIA1Ser, both in Xenopus oocytes and in the membrane fraction of bovine brain. This single amino acid substitution leads to the decreased release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) in immortalized hypothalamic GT1-7 cells. Cows with GRIA1Asn have a slower luteinizing hormone (LH) surge than cows with GRIA1Ser. In addition, cows with GRIA1Asn possess fewer immature ovarian follicles before superovulation and have a lower response to hormone treatment than cows with GRIA1Ser. Our work identified that GRIA1 is a critical mediator of ovulation and that GRIA1 might be a useful target for reproductive therapy. © 2010 Sugimoto et al.

We report the cloning and characterization of a novel NMDA receptor subunit cDNA, which encodes a predicted polypeptide of 1003 amino acids. Phylogenic analysis indicates that this new subunit is most closely related to NR3A. Therefore, we term it NR3B. Important functional domains of glutamate receptors, such as the ligand-binding domain, the channel pore, and the channel gate, are conserved in NR3B. NR3B mRNA was expressed highly in pons, midbrain, medulla, and the spinal cord, but at low levels in the forebrain and the cerebellum. Although NR3A mRNA expression decreases sharply after the second postnatal weeks, NR3B mRNA expression levels in whole brain were constant during postnatal development and into adult. Coimmunoprecipitation analysis showed that NR3B could form NMDA receptor complex with NR1a and NR2A subunits in heterologous cells. Although expression of NR3B alone did not reconstitute functional NMDA receptors, coexpression of NR3B reduced the Ca2+ permeability of glutamate-induced currents in cells expressing NR1a and NR2A. These results indicate that NR3B is a dominant modulatory subunit that can modify the function of NMDA receptors. Since high Ca2+ permeability of NMDA receptors is thought to be a key feature for NMDA receptors to play critical roles in neurodevelopment, synaptic plasticity, and neuronal death, NR3B may contribute to the regulation of these physiological and pathological processes. © 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.