論文

Ca 2+ -dependent activator protein for secretion 1 (CAPS1) plays a regulatory role in the dense-core vesicle (DCV) exocytosis pathway, but its functions at the cellular and synaptic levels in the brain are essentially unknown because of neonatal death soon after birth in Caps1 knock-out mice. To clarify the functions of the protein in the brain, we generated two conditional knock-out (cKO) mouse lines: 1) one lacking Caps1 in the forebrain; and 2) the other lacking Caps1 in the cerebellum. Both cKO mouse lines were born normally and grew to adulthood, although they showed subcellular and synaptic abnormalities. Forebrain-specific Caps1 cKO mice showed reduced immunoreactivity for the DCV marker secretogranin II (SgII) and the trans-Golgi network (TGN) marker syntaxin 6, a reduced number of presynaptic DCVs, and dilated trans-Golgi cisternae in the CA3 region. Cerebellum-specific Caps1 cKO mice had decreased immunoreactivity for SgII and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) along the climbing fibers. At climbing fiber-Purkinje cell synapses, the number of DCVs was markedly lower and the number of synaptic vesicles was also reduced. Correspondingly, the mean amplitude of EPSCs was decreased, whereas paired-pulse depression was significantly increased. Our results suggest that loss of CAPS1 disrupts the TGN-DCV pathway, which possibly impairs synaptic transmission by reducing the presynaptic release probability. © 2013 the authors.

Mice with spontaneous and induced mutations causing cerebellar phenotypes have provided key insights into how motor-related memories are stored in cerebellar circuits. Delayed eyeblink conditioning is a form of associative motor learning that depends on the cerebellum. However, neurochemical investigation of the underlying mechanisms has been hampered by the long training period (usually several days) required to establish conditioning. Here, we report a new rapid-training protocol that reliably induced delayed eyeblink conditioning within a single day. The associative memory formation depended on the expression of the δ2 glutamate receptor (GluD2) in cerebellar Purkinje cells. It lasted for several weeks, but could be erased by extinction sessions in a single day. In addition, using the rapid protocol, we found that eyeblink conditioning could be induced in juvenile mice at postnatal day 21, and that the Sindbis-virus-mediated expression of GluD2 could rescue the impaired eyeblink conditioning in GluD2-null mice in vivo. © 2011 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.

Cbln1, which belongs to the C1q/tumor necrosis factor superfamily, is released from cerebellar granule cells and plays a crucial role in forming and maintaining excitatory synapses between parallel fibers (PFs; axons of granule cells) and Purkinje cells not only during development but also in the adult cerebellum. Although neuronal activity is known to cause morphological changes at synapses, how Cbln1 signaling is affected by neuronal activity remains unclear. Here, we show that chronic stimulation of neuronal activity by elevating extracellular K+ levels or by adding kainate decreased the expression of cbln1 mRNA within several hours in mature granule cells in a manner dependent on L-type voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels and calcineurin. Chronic activity also reduced Cbln1 protein levels within a few days, during which time the number of excitatory synapses on Purkinje cell dendrites was reduced; this activity-induced reduction of synapses was prevented by the addition of exogenous Cbln1 to the culture medium. Therefore, the activity-dependent downregulation of cbln1 may serve as a new presynaptic mechanism by which PF-Purkinje cell synapses adapt to chronically elevated activity, thereby maintaining homeostasis. In addition, the expression of cbln1 mRNA was prevented when immature granule cells were maintained in high-K + medium. Since immature granule cells are chronically depolarized before migrating to the internal granule layer, this depolarization-dependent regulation of cbln1 mRNA expression may also serve as a developmental switch to facilitate PF synapse formation in mature granule cells in the internal granule layer. Copyright © 2009 Society for Neuroscience.

AP-4 is a member of the adaptor protein complexes, which control vesicular trafficking of membrane proteins. Although AP-4 has been suggested to contribute to basolateral sorting in epithelial cells, its function in neurons is unknown. Here, we show that disruption of the gene encoding the β subunit of AP-4 resulted in increased accumulation of axonal autophagosomes, which contained AMPA receptors and transmembrane AMPA receptor regulatory proteins (TARPs), in axons of hippocampal neurons and cerebellar Purkinje cells both in vitro and in vivo. AP-4 indirectly associated with the AMPA receptor via TARPs, and the specific disruption of the interaction between AP-4 and TARPs caused the mislocalization of endogenous AMPA receptors in axons of wild-type neurons. These results indicate that AP-4 may regulate proper somatodendritic-specific distribution of its cargo proteins, including AMPA receptor-TARP complexes and the autophagic pathway in neurons. © 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Autophagy (macroautophagy) is an evolutionally conserved process by which cytoplasmic proteins and organelles are surrounded by unique double membranes and are subsequently degraded upon fusion with lysosomes. Many autophagy-related genes [Atg) have been identified in yeast; a ubiquitin-like Atg12-Atg5 system is also essential for the elongation of the isolation membrane in mammalian cells. Nevertheless, the regulation of autophagy in neurons remains largely unknown. In this study, we crossed conditional knockout mice Atg5 flox/flox with pcp2-Cre transgenic mice, which express Cre recombinase through a Purkinje cell-specific promoter, pcp2. In Atg5 flox/flox; pcp2-Cre mice, the Atg5 gene was excised as early as postnatal day 6; Purkinje cells started to degenerate after approximately 8 weeks, and the animals showed an ataxic gait from around 10 months. Initially, however, the Purkinje cells showed axonal swelling around its terminals from as early as 4 weeks after birth. An electron microscopic analysis revealed the accumulation of autophagosome-like double-membrane structures in the swollen regions, together with numerous membranous organelles, such as tubular or sheet-like smooth endoplasmic reticulum and vesicles. These results suggest that Atg5 plays important roles in the maintenance of axon morphology and membrane structures, and its loss of function leads to the swelling of axons, followed by progressive neurodegeneration in mammalian neurons. ©2007 Landes Bioscience.

The δ2 glutamate receptor (GluRδ2) plays a crucial role in cerebellar functions; mice with a disrupted GluR δ 2 gene (GluR δ 2-/-) display impaired synapse formation and abrogated long-term depression (LTD). However, the mechanisms by which GluRδ2 functions have remained unclear. Because a GluRδ2 mutation in lurcher mice causes channel activities characterized by Ca2+ permeability, GluRδ2 was previously suggested to serve as a Ca2+-permeable channel in Purkinje cells. To test this hypothesis, we introduced a GluRδ2 transgene, which had a mutation (Gln618Arg) in the putative channel pore, into GluRδ2-/- mice. Interestingly, the mutant transgene rescued the major functional and morphological abnormalities of GluRδ2-/- Purkinje cells, such as enhanced paired-pulse facilitation, impaired LTD at parallel fibre synapses, and sustained innervation by multiple climbing fibres. These results indicate that the conserved glutamine residue in the channel pore, which is crucial for all Ca2+-permeable glutamate receptors, is not essential for the function of GluRδ2. © 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 The Physiological Society.

The number of each subclass of ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) at the spines is differentially regulated either constitutively or in a neuronal activity-dependent manner. The δ2 glutamate receptor (GluRδ2) is abundantly expressed at the spines of Purkinje cell dendrites and controls synaptic plasticity in the cerebellum. To obtain clues to the trafficking mechanism of the iGluRs, we expressed wild-type or mutant GluRδ2 in cultured hippocampal and Purkinje neurons and analyzed their intracellular localization using immunocytochemical techniques. Quantitative analysis revealed that deletion of the 20 amino acids at the center of the C terminus (region E) significantly reduced the amount of GluRδ2 protein at the spines in both types of neurons. This effect was partially antagonized by the inhibition of endocytosis by high dose sucrose treatment or coexpression of dominant negative dynamin. In addition, mutant GluRδ2 lacking the E region (GluRδ2ΔE), but not wild-type GluRδ2, was found to colocalize with the endosomal markers Rab4 and Rab7. Moreover, the antibody-feeding assay revealed that GluRδ2ΔE was internalized more rapidly than GluRδ2wt. These results indicate that the E region (more specifically, a 12-amino-acid-long segment of the E2 region) is necessary for rendering GluRδ2 resistant to endocytosis from the cell surface at the spines. Furthermore, insertion of the E2 region alone into the C terminus of the GluR1 subtype of iGluRs was sufficient to increase the amount of GluR1 proteins in the spines. Therefore, we propose that the E2 region of GluRδ2 is necessary, and also sufficient, to inhibit endocytosis of the receptor from postsynaptic membranes. © 2006 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.

Neuronal networks are dynamically modified by selective synapse pruning during development and adulthood. However, how certain connections win the competition with others and are subsequently maintained is not fully understood. Here, we show that C1ql1, a member of the C1q family of proteins, is provided by climbing fibers (CFs) and serves as acrucial anterograde signal to determine and maintain the single-winner CF in the mouse cerebellum throughout development and adulthood. C1ql1 specifically binds to the brain-specific angiogenesis inhibitor 3 (Bai3), which is a member of the cell-adhesionG-protein-coupled receptor family and expressed on postsynaptic Purkinje cells. C1ql1-Bai3 signaling is required for motor learning but not for gross motor performance or coordination. Because related family members of C1ql1 and Bai3 are expressed in various brain regions, the mechanism described here likely applies to synapse formation, maintenance, and function in multiple neuronal circuits essential for important brain functions.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in the medial habenula (MHb)–interpeduncular nucleus (IPN) pathway play critical roles in nicotine-related behaviors. This pathway is particularly enriched in nAChR α3 and β4 subunits, both of which are genetically linked to nicotine dependence. However, the cellular and subcellular expression of endogenous α3β4-containing nAChRs remains largely unknown because specific antibodies and appropriate detection methods were unavailable. Here, we successfully uncovered the expression of endogenous nAChRs containing α3 and β4 subunits in the MHb–IPN pathway using novel specific antibodies and a fixative glyoxal that enables simultaneous detection of synaptic and extrasynaptic molecules. Immunofluorescence and immunoelectron microscopy revealed that both subunits were predominantly localized to the extrasynaptic cell surface of somatodendritic and axonal compartments of MHb neurons but not at their synaptic junctions. Immunolabeling for α3 and β4 subunits disappeared in α5β4-knockout brains, which we used as negative controls. The enriched and diffuse extrasynaptic expression along the MHb–IPN pathway suggests that α3β4-containing nAChRs may enhance the excitability of MHb neurons and neurotransmitter release from their presynaptic terminals in the IPN. The revealed distribution pattern provides a molecular and anatomical basis for understanding the functional role of α3β4-containing nAChRs in the crucial pathway of nicotine dependence.

The fine control of synaptic function requires robust trans-synaptic molecular interactions. However, it remains poorly understood how trans-synaptic bridges change to reflect the functional states of the synapse. Here, we develop optical tools to visualize in firing synapses the molecular behavior of two trans-synaptic proteins, LGI1 and ADAM23, and find that neuronal activity acutely rearranges their abundance at the synaptic cleft. Surprisingly, synaptic LGI1 is primarily not secreted, as described elsewhere, but exo- and endocytosed through its interaction with ADAM23. Activity-driven translocation of LGI1 facilitates the formation of trans-synaptic connections proportionally to the history of activity of the synapse, adjusting excitatory transmission to synaptic firing rates. Accordingly, we find that patient-derived autoantibodies against LGI1 reduce its surface fraction and cause increased glutamate release. Our findings suggest that LGI1 abundance at the synaptic cleft can be acutely remodeled and serves as a critical control point for synaptic function.

Neurotransmitter receptors are essential components of synapses for communication between neurons in the brain. Because the spatiotemporal expression profiles and dynamics of neurotransmitter receptors involved in many functions are delicately governed in the brain, in vivo research tools with high spatiotemporal resolution for receptors in intact brains are highly desirable. Covalent labeling by chemical reaction (chemical labeling) of proteins without genetic manipulation is now a powerful method for analyzing receptors in vitro. However, selective target receptor labeling in the brain has not yet been achieved. This study shows that ligand-directed alkoxyacylimidazole (LDAI) chemistry can be used to selectively tether synthetic probes to target endogenous receptors in living mouse brains. The reactive LDAI reagents with negative charges were found to diffuse well over the whole brain and could selectively label target endogenous receptors, including AMPAR, NMDAR, mGlu1, and GABAAR. This simple and robust labeling protocol was then used for various applications: three-dimensional spatial mapping of endogenous receptors in the brains of healthy and disease-model mice; multi-color receptor imaging; and pulse–chase analysis of the receptor dynamics in postnatal mouse brains. Here, results demonstrated that bioorthogonal receptor modification in living animal brains may provide innovative molecular tools that contribute to the in-depth understanding of complicated brain functions.

Mammalian auditory hair cells transduce sound-evoked traveling waves in the cochlea into nerve stimuli, which are essential for hearing function. Pillar cells located between the inner and outer hair cells are involved in the formation of the tunnel of Corti, which incorporates outer-hair-cell-driven fluid oscillation and basilar membrane movement, leading to the fine-tuned frequency-specific perception of sounds by the inner hair cells. However, the detailed molecular mechanism underlying the development and maintenance of pillar cells remains to be elucidated. In this study, we examined the expression and function of brain-specific angiogenesis inhibitor 3 (Bai3), an adhesion G-protein-coupled receptor, in the cochlea. We found that Bai3 was expressed in hair cells in neonatal mice and pillar cells in adult mice, and, interestingly, Bai3 knockout mice revealed the abnormal formation of pillar cells, with the elevation of the hearing threshold in a frequency-dependent manner. Furthermore, old Bai3 knockout mice showed the degeneration of hair cells and spiral ganglion neurons in the basal turn. The results suggest that Bai3 plays a crucial role in the development and/or maintenance of pillar cells, which, in turn, are necessary for normal hearing function. Our results may contribute to understanding the mechanisms of hearing loss in human patients.