論文

Even though the genomes of several major species have been sequenced, many orphan receptors with unknown ligands and mechanisms of action remain in the CNS. The δ2 glutamate receptor (GluRδ2) is one of such receptors expressed predominantly in the cerebellar Purkinje cells. On the basis of amino acid similarity, it belongs to ionotropic glutamate receptor (iGluR) family, which mediates fast excitatory neurotransmission in the mammalian CNS. Although its null-mutant mice show prominent motor discoordination, the mechanisms by which GluRδ2 participates in the cerebellar functions have been unclear. To gain insight into GluRδ2's mechanisms, we recently generated mice that express either a wild-type or a mutant GluRδ2 transgene, in which the conserved arginine in GluRδ2's N-terminal putative ligand-binding motif was disrupted. By breeding these transgenic mice onto a GluRδ2 -/- background, we obtained two transgenic 'rescue' lines. Surprisingly, the mutant GluRδ2 transgene was as effective as the wild-type GluRδ2 in rescuing the GluRδ2-null mice. As the disrupted arginine residue is highly conserved from ancestral bacterial periplasmic amino acid-binding proteins to mammalian iGluRs, we propose that GluRδ2 may not require glutamate-like amino acids and may function in an unconventional manner. This 'transgenic rescue' approach to investigating orphan receptors is a relatively easy but powerful method when a knockout mouse with a distinct phenotype is already available. The advantages and limitations of this approach, together with certain cautions in interpreting the resulting data, are discussed in this review. © Springer 2005.

Cbln1 is a glycoprotein which belongs to the C1q family. In the cerebellum, Cbln1 is produced and secreted from granule cells and works as a strong synapse organizer between Purkinje cells and parallel fibers, the axons of the granule cells. In this update article, we will describe the molecular mechanisms by which Cbln1 induces synapse formation and will review our findings on the axonal structural changes which occur specifically during this process. We will also describe our recent finding that Cbln1 has a suppressive role in inhibitory synapse formation between Purkinje cells and molecular layer interneurons. Our results have revealed that Cbln1 plays an essential role to establish parallel fiber-Purkinje cell synapses and to regulate balance between excitatory and inhibitory input on Purkinje cells.

Long-term changes in synaptic transmission in the central nervous system, such as long-term potentiation and long-term depression (LTD), are believed to underlie learning and memory in vivo. Despite intensive research, the precise molecular mechanisms underlying these phenomena have remained unclear. LTD is most commonly caused by the endocytosis of postsynaptic AMPA-type glutamate receptors, triggered by activity- induced serine phosphorylation of the GluA2 subunit. Interestingly, cerebellar LTD, which occurs at synapses between parallel fibers (PFs; axons of granule cells) and Purkinje cells, is unique in requiring an additional type of glutamate receptor, the δ2 receptor (GluD2). Cbln1 was recently identified as a GluD2 ligand that regulates PF synapse formation and maintenance. However, how GluD2 induces downstream signaling in Purkinje cells to regulate LTD induction is unknown. We here present evidence that GluD2 reduces the tyrosine phosphorylation level of the GluA2 subunit via PTPMEG, a protein tyrosine phosphatase that binds to GluD2's C-terminus. We also found that the serine phosphorylation of GluA2, a crucial step for AMPA-receptor endocytosis, requires prior tyrosine dephosphorylation. Thus, GluD2 may serve as a gatekeeper for LTD induction by coordinating interactions between GluA2's 2 phosphorylation sites. © 2013 Landes Bioscience.

Long-term depression (LTD) underlies learning and memory in various brain regions. Although postsynaptic AMPA receptor trafficking mediates LTD, its underlying molecular mechanisms remain largely unclear. Here we show that stargazin, a transmembrane AMPA receptor regulatory protein, forms a ternary complex with adaptor proteins AP-2 and AP-3A in hippocampal neurons, depending on its phosphorylation state. Inhibiting the stargazin-AP-2 interaction disrupts NMDA-induced AMPA receptor endocytosis, and inhibiting that of stargazin-AP-3A abrogates the late endosomal/lysosomal trafficking of AMPA receptors, thereby upregulating receptor recycling to the cell surface. Similarly, stargazin's interaction with AP-2 or AP-3A is necessary for low-frequency stimulus-evoked LTD in CA1 hippocampal neurons. Thus, stargazin has a crucial role in NMDA-dependent LTD by regulating two trafficking pathways of AMPA receptors - transport from the cell surface to early endosomes and from early endosomes to late endosomes/lysosomes - through its sequential binding to AP-2 and AP-3A. © 2013 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved.

Long-term depression (LTD) commonly affects learning andmemoryin various brain regions. Although cerebellar LTD absolutely requires the δ2 glutamate receptor (GluD2) that is expressed in Purkinje cells, LTDin other brain regions does not;why andhowcerebellar LTD is regulated by GluD2 remains unelucidated. Here, we show that the activitydependent phosphorylation of serine 880 (S880) in GluA2 AMPA receptor subunit, which is an essential step for AMPA receptor endocytosis during LTD induction, was impaired in GluD2-null cerebellum. In contrast, the basal phosphorylation levels of tyrosine 876 (Y876) in GluA2were increased in GluD2-null cerebellum. An in vitro phosphorylation assay revealed that Y876 phosphorylation inhibited subsequent S880 phosphorylation. Conversely, Y876 dephosphorylation was sufficient to restore S880 phosphorylation and LTD induction in GluD2-null Purkinje cells. Furthermore, megakaryocyte protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTPMEG), which binds to the C terminus of GluD2, directly dephosphorylated Y876. These data indicate that GluD2 gates LTD by coordinating interactions between the two phosphorylation sites of the GluA2.

The δ2 glutamate receptor (GluD2) is predominantly expressed in cerebellar Purkinje cells and plays crucial roles in cerebellar functions. Indeed, the number of synapses between parallel fibers (PFs) and Purkinje cells is specifically and severely reduced in GluD2-null cerebellum. In addition, long-term depression (LTD) at PF-Purkinje cell synapses is impaired in these mice. Nevertheless, the mechanism by which GluD2 regulate these two functions-morphological and functional synaptic plasticity at PF synapses-has remained unclear. Recently, we found that Cbln1, a glycoprotein released from granule cells, was bound to the N-terminal domain of GluD2 and regulated formation and maintenance of PF-Purkinje cell synapses. Furthermore, we found that D-Ser released from Bergmann glia bound the ligand-binding domain of GluD2 and mediated LTD in a manner dependent on the C-terminus. These findings indicate how GluD2 is activated and regulates functions at PF-Purkinje cell synapses. A hypothesis about why GluD2 is employed by PF synapses is also discussed. ©Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011.

Late endosome-lysosome trafficking plays a key role in regulating cell surface signaling and degradation of intracellular components by autophagy. New work by Cai and coworkers in this issue of Neuron provides evidence that snapin regulates the recruitment of late endosomes to the dynein motor complex for retrograde trafficking along microtubules and maturation of lysosomes. © 2010 Elsevier Inc.

Several C1q family members, especially the Cbln and C1q-like subfamilies, are highly and predominantly expressed in the central nervous system. Cbln1, a member of the Cbln subfamily, plays two unique roles at parallel ber (PF)-Purkinje cell synapses in the cerebellum: the formation and stabilization of synaptic contact, and the control of functional synaptic plasticity by regulating the postsynaptic endocytotic pathway. The delta2 glutamate receptor (GluD2), which is predominantly expressed in Purkinje cells, plays similar critical roles in the cerebellum. In addition, viral expression of GluD2 or the application of recombinant Cbln1 induces PF- Purkinje cell synaptogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Antigen-unmasking methods were necessary to reveal the immunoreactivities for endogenous Cbln1 and GluD2 at the synaptic junction of PF synapses. We propose that Cbln1 and GluD2 are located at the synaptic cleft, where various proteins undergo intricate molecular interactions with each other, and serve as a bidirectional synaptic organizer. © The Author (2010). Journal Compilation © Federation of European Neuroscience Societies and Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Various types of induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells have been established by different methods, and each type exhibits different biological properties. Before iPS cell-based clinical applications can be initiated, detailed evaluations of the cells, including their differentiation potentials and tumorigenic activities in different contexts, should be investigated to establish their safety and effectiveness for cell transplantation therapies. Here we show the directed neural differentiation of murine iPS cells and examine their therapeutic potential in amouse spinal cord injury (SCI)model. "Safe" iPS-derived neurospheres, which had been pre-evaluated as nontumorigenic by their transplantation into nonobese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficiency (NOD/SCID) mouse brain, produced electrophysiologically functional neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes in vitro. Furthermore, when the safe iPS-derived neurospheres were transplanted into the spinal cord 9 d after contusive injury, they differentiated into all three neural lineages without forming teratomas or other tumors. They also participated in remyelination and induced the axonal regrowth of host 5HT+ serotonergic fibers, promoting locomotor function recovery. However, the transplantation of iPSderived neurospheres pre-evaluated as "unsafe" showed robust teratoma formation and sudden locomotor functional loss after functional recovery in the SCI model. These findings suggest that preevaluated safe iPS clone-derived neural stem/progenitor cells may be a promising cell source for transplantation therapy for SCI.

The δ2 glutamate receptor (GluRδ2; GluD2), which is predominantly expressed on postsynaptic sites at parallel fiber (PF)-Purkinje cell synapses in the cerebellum, plays two crucial roles in the cerebellum: the formation of PF synapses and the regulation of long-term depression (LTD), a form of synaptic plasticity underlying motor learning. Although the induction of LTD and motor learning absolutely require signaling via the cytoplasmic C-terminal domain of GluD2, the mechanisms by which GluD2 regulates PF synaptogenesis have remained unclear. Here, we examined the role of the extracellular N-terminal domain (NTD) of GluD2 on PF synaptogenesis by injecting Sindbis virus carrying wild-type (GluD2wt) or mutant GluD2 into the subarachnoid supracerebellar space of GluD2-null mice. Remarkably, the expression of GluD2wt, but not of a mutant GluD2 lacking the NTD (GluD2ΔNTD), rapidly induced PF synapse formation and rescued gross motor dyscoordination in adult GluD2-null mice just 1 d after injection. In addition, although the kainate receptor GluR6 (GluK2) did not induce PF synaptogenesis, a chimeric GluK2 that contained the NTD of GluD2 (GluD2 NTD-GluK2) did. Similarly, GluD2wt and GluD2 NTD-GluK2, but not GluD2ΔNTD, induced synaptogenesis in heterologous cells in vitro. In contrast, LTD was restored in GluD2-null Purkinje cells expressing a mutant GluD2 lacking the NTD. These results indicate that the NTD of GluD2 is necessary and sufficient for the function of GluD2 in the regulation of PF-Purkinje cell synaptogenesis. Furthermore, our results suggest that GluD2 differently regulates PF synaptogenesis and cerebellar LTD through the extracellular NTD and the cytoplasmic C-terminal end, respectively. Copyright © 2009 Society for Neuroscience.

The δ2 glutamate receptor (GluRδ2) belongs to the ionotropic glutamate receptor (iGluR) family and plays a crucial role in the induction of cerebellar long-term depression (LTD), a form of synaptic plasticity underlying motor learning. Nevertheless, the mechanisms by which GluRδ2 regulates cerebellar LTD have remained elusive. Because a mutation occurring in lurcher mice causes continuous GluRδ2 channel activity that can be abolished by 1-naphtylacetylspermine (NASP), a channel blocker for Ca2+- permeable iGluRs, GluRδ2 is thought to function as an ion channel. Here, we introduced a mutant GluR δ 2 transgene, in which the putative channel pore was disrupted, into GluR δ2 -null Purkinje cells using a virus vector. Surprisingly and similar to the effect of the wild-type GluR δ2 transgene, the mutant GluR δ2 completely rescued the abrogated LTD in GluR δ2-null mice. Furthermore, NASP did not block LTD induction in wild-type cerebellar slices. These results indicate that GluRδ2, a member of the iGluR family, does not serve as a channel in the regulation of LTD induction. © 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 The Physiological Society.

Long-term depression (LTD) of parallel fibre (PF)-Purkinje cell synapses in the cerebellum is recognized as a cellular substrate of motor learning. Although the δ2 glutamate receptor (GluRδ2) has been shown to be crucial for LTD, the mechanisms by which GluRδ2 functions remain elusive. In this study, we developed a virus vector-based gene transfer approach to rescue impaired LTD in GluRδ2-null Purkinje cells in cerebellar slice preparations. We demonstrated that LTD was restored in GluRδ2-null Purkinje cells transduced with wild-type but not with mutant GluRδ2, which lacked the PDZ-ligand domain in the C-terminus. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed no difference in expression levels or spine localization patterns between virally introduced wild-type and mutant GluRδ2 proteins. Similarly, LTD was abrogated in Purkinje cells that had been acutely perfused with peptides, hampering the interaction of GluRδ2 with PDZ proteins such as PSD-93, PTPMEG and S-SCAM but not with delphilin. Together, these results indicate that PDZ proteins that bind to the C-terminus of GluRδ2 are not essential for localizing GluRδ2 at synapses but are crucial for conveying signals necessary for the induction of LTD. © The Authors (2007).