論文

The thymus is an organ where T lymphocytes develop. Thymus development requires interactions of cells derived from three germ layers. However, the molecular mechanisms that control thymus development are not fully understood. To identify the genes that regulate thymus development, we previously carried out a large-scale screening for ethylnitrosourea-induced mutagenesis using medaka, Oryzias latipes, and established a panel of recessive thymus-lacking mutants. Here we report the identification of three genes responsible for these mutations. We found that the mutations in KIAA1440, TRRAP, and SKIV2L2 caused the defects in distinct steps of thymus development. We also found that these genes were widely expressed in many organs and that the mutations in these genes caused defects in the development of various other organs. These results enabled us to identify previously unknown roles of widely expressed genes in medaka organ development. The possible reasons why thymus-defective teleost mutants could be used to identify widely expressed genes and future strategies to increase the likelihood of identifying genes that specifically regulate thymus development are discussed.

The periodontal ligament (PDL) is a strong connective tissue that surrounds the tooth root, absorbs occlusal forces, and functions as a sense organ. PDL originated from dental follicle (DF), which possessed mesenchymal progenitors in the developing tooth germ. However, as specific marker genes for PDL and DF are currently unavailable, the molecular mechanisms of PDL development are yet to be clarified. To facilitate the identification of such genes, we have previously established a transcriptome database of the human PDL (the KK-Periome database) and screened for specific genes expressed during PDL development. Initial screening of the database revealed two marker genes for distinguishing DF and PDL. The KK-Periome database thus appears to offer a useful resource for investigating genes involved in PDL development.

The thymus is a vertebrate-specific organ where T lymphocytes are generated. Genetic programs that lead to thymus development are incompletely understood. We previously screened ethylnitrosourea-induced medaka mutants for recessive defects in thymus development. Here we report that one of those mutants is caused by a missense mutation in a gene encoding the previously uncharacterized protein WDR55 carrying the tryptophan-aspartate-repeat motif. We find that WDR55 is a novel nucleolar protein involved in the production of ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Defects in WDR55 cause aberrant accumulation of rRNA intermediates and cell cycle arrest. A mutation in WDR55 in zebrafish also leads to analogous defects in thymus development, whereas WDR55-null mice are lethal before implantation. These results indicate that WDR55 is a nuclear modulator of rRNA synthesis, cell cycle progression, and embryonic organogenesis including teleost thymus development.

The complete nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial (mt) genomes of the entoprocts Loxocorone allax and Loxosomella aloxiata were determined. Both species carry the typical gene set of metazoan mt genomes and have similar organizations of their mt genes. However, they show differences in the positions of two tRNA(Leu) genes. Additionally, the tRNA(Val) gene, and half of the long non-coding region, is duplicated and inverted in the Loxos. aloxiata mt genome. The initiation codon of the Loxos. aloxiata cytochrome oxidase subunit I gene is expected to be ACG rather than AUG. The mt gene organizations in these two entoproct species most closely resemble those of mollusks such as Katharina tunicata and Octopus vulgaris, which have the most evolutionarily conserved mt gene organization reported to date in mollusks. Analyses of the mt gene organization in the lophotrochozoan phyla (Annelida, Brachiopoda, Echiura, Entoprocta, Mollusca, Nemertea, and Phoronida) suggested a close phylogenetic relationship between Brachiopoda, Annelida, and Echiura. However, Phoronida was excluded from this grouping. Molecular phylogenetic analyses based on the sequences of mt protein-coding genes suggested a possible close relationship between Entoprocta and Phoronida, and a close relationship among Brachiopoda, Annelida, and Echiura.

Medaka (Oryzias latipes) is a small egg-laying freshwater teleost native to East Asia that has become an excellent model system for developmental genetics and evolutionary biology. The draft medaka genome sequence (700 Mb) was reported in June 2007, and its substantial genomic resources have been opened to the public through the University of Tokyo Genome Browser Medaka (UTGB/medaka) database. This database provides basic genomic information, such as predicted genes, expressed sequence tags (ESTs), guanine/cytosine (GC) content, repeats and comparative genomics, as well as unique data resources including (i) 2473 genetic markers and experimentally confirmed PCR primers that amplify these markers, (ii) 142,414 bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) and 217,344 fosmid end sequences that amount to 15.0- and 11.1-fold clone coverage of the entire genome, respectively, and were used for draft genome assembly, (iii) 16,519,460 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and 2 859 905 insertions/deletions detected between two medaka inbred strain genomes and (iv) 841 235 5'-end serial analyses of gene-expression (SAGE) tags that identified 344 266 transcription start sites on the genome. UTGB/medaka is available at: http://medaka.utgenome.org/.

We characterized the promoter activity of fast skeletal myosin heavy chain genes (MYHs) from medaka Oryzias latipes. The 5'-flanking region of approximately 6 kb in medaka MYHs, mMYH10 and mMYH30, predominantly expressed in medaka acclimated to 10 degrees C and 30 degrees C, respectively, contained various cis-elements that are supposed to bind to transcriptional regulatory factors such as MyoD and myocyte enhancer factor 2 (MEF2) family members and nuclear factor of activated T cells. To localize functional regions responsible for the mMYH expression in a temperature-dependent manner, a series of deletion and site mutation constructs prepared from the 5'-flanking regions were fused to the luciferase gene in a commercially available plasmid and directly injected into the dorsal fast muscle of medaka acclimated to 10 degrees C and 30 degrees C. The truncation of MEF2 binding site located at -966 to -957 in the 5'-flanking region of mMYH10 resulted in distinct gene expression at 10 degrees C. The activation effect by the removal of this binding site was further confirmed by the mutation construct. One of the E box sites, to which MyoD family members are supposed to bind, was located at -613 to -607 of mMYH10, and found to be responsible for the transcriptional activity. In contrast, the MEF2 binding site located at -960 to -951 of mMYH30 was involved in the activation at 30 degrees C. Thus, these transient transfection assays demonstrated that the MEF2 binding site is crucial for a temperature-dependent expression of mMYHs.

We identified 11 proteins that are associated with DGCR8 by immunoprecipitation assay and mass spectrometry. These proteins included Nucleolin, ILF3 and others, most of which appeared to be involved in the RNA processing or RNA transportation. We detected at least four kinds of protein complex, such as DROSHA/DGCR8, DGCR8/Nucleolin, DGCR8/ILF3 and ILF3/XPO5, by co-immunoprecipitation. The complex formation of DGCR8 with Nucleolin was dependent on RNA. Subcellular localization analysis by the immunofluorescent microscopy and immunoelectron microscopy indicated that DGCR8 locates at the nucleolus and small foci adjacent to splicing speckles in the nucleoplasm. Furthermore, the localization of DGCR8 at the nucleolus was changed by the inhibition of RNA transcription. Thus, our studies provided additional new evidence for the involvement of various protein complexes in the molecular mechanisms of apparently complex innate RNA interference machinery.

Specialized connective tissues such as tendon/ligament develop through a series of events that require temporal and spatial expression of numerous genes in mesenchymal progenitors. However, the genes required for tendon/ligament development have not been identified yet. To solve this problem, we made a cDNA library from periodontal ligament and sequenced 11,520 cDNA clones, as a model for investigating tendon/ligament development. The resulting sequence data was assembled to 617 expressed sequence tag (EST) clusters, and an EST database for human periodontal ligament (PDL) was constructed (designated as the KK-Periome database). In the KK-Periome database, the top 13 EST clusters were related to extracellular matrix (ECM) genes. The temporal and spatial expression patterns of these genes during mouse PDL development were examined by in situ hybridization. Among these genes, F-spondin was expressed specifically in dental follicle (DF) cells during tooth germ development, whereas tenascin-N was strongly expressed in the terminally differentiated PDL. This characteristic expression profile was confirmed by in vivo differentiation assay of human PDL (hPDL) cells in the mouse transplant. Thus, the KK-Periome database was proven to be a useful resource for PDL-derived ESTs (transcriptome), and in fact, initial evidence indicated that F-spondin and tenascin-N might serve as markers for DF and PDL, respectively.

We report a novel protein family consisting of three members, each of which contains RUN and TBC motifs and appears to be associated with small G protein-mediated signal transduction pathway. We named these proteins as small G protein signaling modulators (SGSM1/2/3). Northern blot analysis revealed that human SGSM2/3 are expressed ubiquitously in various tissues, whereas SGSM1 is expressed mainly in brain, heart, and testis. Mouse possessed the same protein family genes, and the in situ hybridization and immunohistochemical staining of tissue sections revealed that mouse Sgsm1/2/3 are expressed in the neurons of central nervous system, indicating the strong association of Sgsm family with neuronal function. Furthermore, endogenous Sgsm1 protein was localized in the trans-Golgi network of mouse Neuro2a cells by immunofluorescence microscopy. Expression of various cDNA constructs followed by immunoprecipitation assay revealed that human SGSM1/2/3 proteins are coprecipitated with RAP and RAB subfamily members of the small G protein superfamily. Based on these results, we postulated that the SGSM family members function as modulators of the small G protein RAP and RAB-mediated neuronal signal transduction and vesicular transportation pathways.

The Argonaute family and DICER proteins are major key proteins involved in the RNA-mediated gene silencing mechanism of various species. In this mechanism, cleavage of messenger RNAs (mRNA) or suppression of mRNA translation takes place via small RNAs that are uniquely processed by DICER. Previously, we demonstrated that human Argonaute family proteins bind to DICER. In this study, we identified a unique amino acid sequence of 127 amino acids in the RIBOc-A domain of human DICER protein as a "binding site" to Argonaute proteins. Comparative genomics analysis revealed that this unique amino acid sequence is highly conserved in the vertebrates, but not found in the non-vertebrate species. Significant difference in the RIBOc-A domain of DICER protein between vertebrate and non-vertebrate species may help exploring the functional complexity in the RNA-mediated gene silencing mechanism.

The Medaka is an excellent genetic system for studies of vertebrate development and disease and environmental and evolutionary biology studies. To facilitate the mapping of markers or the cloning of affected genes in Medaka mutants identified by forward-genetic screens, we have established a panel of whole-genome radiation hybrids (RHs) and RH maps for three Medaka chromosomes. RH mapping is useful, since markers to be mapped need not be polymorphic and one can establish the order of markers that are difficult to resolve by genetic mapping owing to low genetic recombination rates. RHs were generated by fusing the irradiated donor, OLF-136 Medaka cell line, with the host B78 mouse melanoma cells. Of 290 initial RH clones, we selected 93 on the basis of high retention of fragments of the Medaka genome to establish a panel that allows genotyping in the 96-well format. RH maps for linkage groups 12, 17, and 22 were generated using 159 markers. The average retention for the three chromosomes was 19% and the average break point frequency was approximately 33 kb/cR. We estimate the potential resolution of the RH panel to be approximately 186 kb, which is high enough for integrating RH data with bacterial artificial chromosome clones. Thus, this first RH panel will be a useful tool for mapping mutated genes in Medaka.

Teleosts comprise more than half of all vertebrate species and have adapted to a variety of marine and freshwater habitats. Their genome evolution and diversification are important subjects for the understanding of vertebrate evolution. Although draft genome sequences of two pufferfishes have been published, analysis of more fish genomes is desirable. Here we report a high-quality draft genome sequence of a small egg-laying freshwater teleost, medaka (Oryzias latipes). Medaka is native to East Asia and an excellent model system for a wide range of biology, including ecotoxicology, carcinogenesis, sex determination and developmental genetics. In the assembled medaka genome (700 megabases), which is less than half of the zebrafish genome, we predicted 20,141 genes, including approximately 2,900 new genes, using 5'-end serial analysis of gene expression tag information. We found single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at an average rate of 3.42% between the two inbred strains derived from two regional populations; this is the highest SNP rate seen in any vertebrate species. Analyses based on the dense SNP information show a strict genetic separation of 4 million years (Myr) between the two populations, and suggest that differential selective pressures acted on specific gene categories. Four-way comparisons with the human, pufferfish (Tetraodon), zebrafish and medaka genomes revealed that eight major interchromosomal rearrangements took place in a remarkably short period of approximately 50 Myr after the whole-genome duplication event in the teleost ancestor and afterwards, intriguingly, the medaka genome preserved its ancestral karyotype for more than 300 Myr.

We previously performed mutant screens in the medaka for defects in gonadal development and identified a mutant of interest in this regard, which was designated as hotei (hot). This mutant manifests a number of remarkable phenotypic abnormalities including: (i) excessive proliferation of germ cells that initiates at around the hatching stage regardless of the genetic sex of the fish; (ii) initiation of premature meiosis in phenotypically male hot homozygotes; (iii) one-half of the hot-homozygous XY fish undergo sex reversal, which accompanies the expression of the female-characteristic aromatase gene in the somatic cells of the gonad; and (iv) in phenotypically female homozygotes, follicular development is arrested at an early stage. We have also performed genetic mapping, chromosome walking, and candidate gene sequencing analysis of hot and demonstrate that the underlying mutation occurs in the recently identified medaka anti-Mullerian hormone (Amh) receptor type II (amhrII) gene. Moreover, this gene was found to be responsible for each of the hot phenotypes, as an amhrII transgene rescues these abnormalities. In addition, the amhrII gene is expressed in the somatic cells of the gonads of both sexes. The phenotypes of the hot homozygotes indicate that there are multiple regulatory functions of the AMH/AMHRII signaling system in the development of the gonad, including the sex-dependent regulation of germ cell proliferation and follicular development. These presumably represent the basic roles of Amh, which precede Mullerian duct evolution during phylogeny.

Evolution of the genome size in eukaryotes is often affected by changes in the noncoding sequences, for which insertions and deletions (indels) of small nucleotide sequences and amplification of repetitive elements are considered responsible. In this study, we compared the genomic DNA sequences of two kinds of fish, medaka (Oryzias latipes) and fugu (Takifugu rubripes), which show two-fold difference in the genome size (800 Mb vs. 400 Mb). We selected a contiguous DNA sequence of 790 kb from the medaka chromosome LG22 (linkage group 22), and made a precise comparison with the sequence (387 kb) of the corresponding region of Takifugu. The sequence of 178 kb in total was aligned common between two fishes, and the remaining sequences (612 kb for medaka and 209 kb for fugu) were found abundant in various repetitive elements including many types of unclassified low copy repeats, all of which accounted for more than a half (54%) of the genome size difference. Furthermore, we identified a significant difference in the length ratio of the unaligned sequences that locate between the aligned sequences (USBAS), particularly after eliminating known repetitive elements. These USBAS with no repetitive elements (USBAS-nr) located within the intron and intergenic region. These results strongly indicated that amplification of repetitive elements and compilation of indels are major driving forces to facilitate changes in the genome size.

To disclose mechanisms involved in temperature acclimation of fish muscle, we subjected eurythermal fish of medaka Oryzias latipes to cloning of myosin heavy chain genes (MYHs). We cloned cDNAs encoding fast skeletal muscle myosin heavy chain (MYH) isoforms from cDNA libraries of medaka acclimated to 10 and 30 degrees C and observed that different MYH cDNA clones are expressed in the two temperature-acclimated fish. Subsequently, we isolated several overlapping MYH contigs by shotgun cloning strategy from a medaka genomic library. Contig assembly of the complete medaka MYH (mMYH) locus of 219 kbp revealed a cluster of tandemly arrayed 11 mMYHs, in which eight genes are actually transcribed, with the remaining three being pseudogenes. Expression analysis of the transcribed genes revealed that two genes were each highly expressed in medaka acclimated to 10 and 30 degrees C, whereas comparatively lower expression levels of the three genes were exclusively observed in medaka acclimated to 30 degrees C. cDNAs of the remaining genes were too underrepresented in the libraries to determine the expression levels, and the transcripts could only be obtained by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Deduced amino acid sequences in the loop 1 and loop 2 regions of mMYHs were highly variable, suggesting that these isoforms were functionally different. The present findings consolidate our knowledge on teleost MYH multigene family and would provide further insight into the mechanisms by which expressions of individual MYH molecules are fine-tuned with environmental temperature fluctuations with further functional analysis of the genes concerned.

We report the genomic DNA sequence of a single chromosome (linkage group 22; LG22) of the small teleost fish medaka (Oryzias latipes) as a first whole chromosome sequence from a non-mammalian vertebrate. The order and orientation of 633 protein-coding genes were deduced from 18,803,338 bp of DNA sequence, providing the opportunity to analyze chromosome evolution of vertebrate genomes by direct comparison with the human genome. The average number of genes in the "conserved gene cluster" (CGC), a strict definition of "synteny" at the sequence basis, between medaka and human was 1.6. These and other data suggest that approximately 38.8% of pair-wise gene relationships would have been broken from their common ancestor in the human and medaka lineages and further imply that approx 20,000 (15,520-23,280) breaks would have occurred from the entire genome of the common ancestor. These breaks were generated mainly by intra-chromosomal shufflings at a specific era in the vertebrate lineage. These precise comparative genomics allowed us to identify the pieces of ancient chromosomes of the common vertebrate ancestor and estimate chromosomal evolution in the vertebrate lineage.

Medaka (Oryzias latipes) is widely used in research in the fields of biology, medicine, environmental science and fisheries. Zebrafish and medaka are well established as genetic model systems in which large-scale mutagenesis has been successfully performed, and for which EST data, BAC libraries, and fine linkage maps have been accumulated. Among rayfinned fish, there is a large evolutionary distance between medaka and zebrafish. In contrast, the evolutionary distance between medaka and two species of pufferfish, fugu (Takifugu rubripes), and tetraodon (Tetraodon nigroviridis), is almost comparable to that between humans and rodents, and the current genome project is showing that their genome organization is well conserved. Comparison of genome structure among teleosts and mammals helps our understanding of the orthologous gene structure and the evolution of gene families in vertebrates. In addition, gene functions have to be analyzed by both forward and reverse genetics. The Targeting Induced Local Lesions IN Genome (TILLING) system, which includes random mutagenesis, followed by screening for induced mutations in the target genes, is a powerful tool for studying the functional genomics of both medaka and zebrafish.

Sequencing of the human Y chromosome has uncovered the peculiarities of the genomic organization of a heterogametic sex chromosome of old evolutionary age, and has led to many insights into the evolutionary changes that occurred during its long history. We have studied the genomic organization of the medaka fish Y chromosome, which is one of the youngest heterogametic sex chromosomes on which molecular data are available. The Y specific and adjacent regions were sequenced and compared to the X. The male sex-determining gene, dmrt1bY, appears to be the only functional gene in the Y-specific region. The Y-specific region itself is derived from the duplication of a 43-kb fragment from linkage group 9. All other coduplicated genes except dmrt1bY degenerated. The Y-specific region has accumulated large stretches of repetitive sequences and duplicated pieces of DNA from elsewhere in the genome, thereby growing to 258 kb. Interestingly the non-recombining part of the Y did not spread out considerably from the original duplicated fragment, possibly because of a large sequence duplication bordering the Y-specific fragment. This may have conserved the more ancestral structure of the medaka Y and provides insights into some of the initial processes of Y chromosome evolution.