論文

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease, which is characterized by activation of CD4+ T helper 2 cells orchestrating an allergic airway response.Whereas the role ofWnt family members in regulating T cell maintenance and maturation is established, their contribution to T cell activation in allergic asthma is not known.We hypothesized that Wnt10b plays a role in the modulation of the allergic airway response and affectsTcell activation and polarization.Using an in vivo house dust mite asthma model, Wnt10b-deficient (Wnt10b-/-) mice were allergen-sensitized and inflammation, as well as T cell activation, was studied in vivo and in vitro. Wnt10b-/- mice exhibited an augmented inflammatory phenotype with an increase in eosinophils in the bronchoalveolar lavage and IL-4 and IL-13 in the lungs when compared with wild-type mice. In vitro studies confirmed an increased T helper type 2 polarization and increased T cell activation ofWnt10b-/- cells. Accordingly, the percentage of naive T cells was elevated by the addition of recombinantWnt10b protein. Finally,Wnt10b-/- mice exhibited an increase in the percentage of effector T cells in the lungs after house dust mite sensitization, which indicated a heightened activation state, measured by an increased percentage of CD69hiCD11ahi cells. These findings suggest thatWnt10b plays an important role in regulating asthmatic airway inflammation through modification of the T cell response and is a prospective target in the disease process.

Spatiotemporal regulation of axonal branching and elongation is essential in the development of refined neural circuits. cAMP is a key regulator of axonal growth; however, whether and how intracellular cAMP regulates axonal branching and elongation remain unclear, mainly because tools to spatiotemporally manipulate intracellular cAMP levels have been lacking. To overcome this issue, we utilized photoactivated adenylyl cyclase (PAC), which produces cAMP in response to blue-light exposure. In primary cultures of dentate granule cells transfected with PAC, short-term elevation of intracellular cAMP levels induced axonal branching but not elongation, whereas long-term cAMP elevation induced both axonal branching and elongation. The temporal dynamics of intracellular cAMP levels regulated axonal branching and elongation through the activation of protein kinase A (PKA) and exchange protein directly activated by cAMP (Epac), respectively. Thus, using PAC, our study for the first time reveals that temporal cAMP dynamics could regulate axonal branching and elongation via different signaling pathways.

Recent data has indicated that Zn can modulate serotonergic function through the 5-HT1A receptor (5-HT1AR); however, the exact mechanisms are unknown. In the present studies, radioligand binding assays and behavioural approaches were used to characterize the pharmacological profile of Zn at 5-HT1ARs in more detail. The influence of Zn on agonist binding to 5-HT1ARs stably expressed in HEK293 cells was investigated by in vitro radioligand binding methods using the agonist [3H]-8-OH-DPAT. The in vivo effects of Zn were compared with those of 8-OH-DPAT in hypothermia, lower lip retraction (LLR), 5-HT behavioural syndrome and the forced swim (FST) tests. In the in vitro studies, biphasic effects, which involved allosteric potentiation of agonist binding at sub-micromolar Zn concentrations and inhibition at sub-millimolar Zn concentrations, were found. The in vivo studies showed that Zn did not induce LLR or elements of 5-HT behavioural syndrome but blocked such effects induced by 8-OH-DPAT. Zn decreased body temperature in rats and mice; however, Zn failed to induce hypothermia in the 5-HT1A autoreceptor knockout mice. In the FST, Zn potentiated the effect of 8-OH-DPAT. However, in the FST performed with the 5-HT1A autoreceptor knockout mice, the anti-immobility effect of Zn was partially blocked. Both the binding and behavioural studies suggest a concentration-dependent dual mechanism of Zn action at 5-HT1ARs, with potentiation at low dose and inhibition at high dose. Moreover, the in vivo studies indicate that Zn can modulate both presynaptic and postsynaptic 5-HT1ARs; however, Zn’s effects at presynaptic receptors seem to be more potent.

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are widely used antidepressants, but the mechanisms by which they influence behavior are only partially resolved. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis is necessary for some of the responses to SSRIs, but it is not known whether mature dentate gyrus granule cells (DG GCs) also contribute. We deleted the serotonin 1A receptor (5HT1AR, a receptor required for the SSRI response) specifically from DG GCs and found that the effects of the SSRI fluoxetine on behavior and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis were abolished. By contrast, mice lacking 5HT1ARs only in young adult-born GCs (abGCs) showed normal fluoxetine responses. Notably, 5HT1AR-deficient mice engineered to express functional 5HT1ARs only in DG GCs responded to fluoxetine, indicating that 5HT1ARs in DG GCs are sufficient to mediate an antidepressant response. Taken together, these data indicate that both mature DG GCs and young abGCs must be engaged for an antidepressant response.

Neuronal heterotopia refers to brain malformations resulting from deficits of neuronal migration. Individuals with heterotopias show a high incidence of neurological deficits, such as epilepsy. More recently, it has come to be recognized that focal heterotopiasmayalso show a range of psychiatric problems, including cognitive and behavioral impairments. However, because focal heterotopias are not always located in the brain areas responsible for the symptoms, the causal relationship between the symptoms and heterotopias remains elusive. In this study, we showed that mice with focal heterotopias in the somatosensory cortex generated by in utero electroporation exhibited spatial working memory deficit and low competitive dominance behavior, which have been shown to be closely associated with the activity of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) in rodents. Analysis of the mPFC activity revealed that the immediate-early gene expression was decreased and the local field potentials of the mPFC were altered in the mice with heterotopias compared with the control mice. Moreover, activation of these ectopic and overlying sister neurons using the DREADD (designer receptor exclusively activated by designer drug) system improved the working memory deficits. These findings suggest that cortical regions containing focal heterotopias can affect distant brain regions and give rise to behavioral abnormalities.

Cortical spreading depression (CSD) is a phenomenon associated with a propagating large shift in direct current (DC) potential followed by suppression of electrophysiological activity. For temporal analysis of CSD propagation, electrophysiological recording is the most reliable tool. However, it is difficult to completely identify the spatial area of the brain influenced by CSD, because recording sites are technically limited. Histological post hoc identification of activated neurons by labeling the induction of an immediate early gene (IEG) could determine areas of CSD propagation. We found that cortical application of potassium chloride induced expression of Npas4 IEG mRNA in the ipsilateral dorsal cortex. Interestingly, induction of Npas4 was never observed in the ipsilateral hippocampus and there was a clear boundary to the area of Npas4 expression. To determine whether the boundary of the area of Npas4 mRNA expression was the limit of CSD propagation, we recorded local field potentials from multiple sites that crossed the boundary of Npas4 expression. We found that the area of Npas4 mRNA expression coincided with the area of DC-potential shift propagation. We propose that induction of Npas4 identifies the area influenced by CSD propagation.

Adult hippocampal neurogenesis is believed to support hippocampus-dependent learning and emotional regulation. These putative functions of adult neurogenesis have typically been studied in isolation, and little is known about how they interact to produce adaptive behavior. We used trace fear conditioning as a model system to elucidate mechanisms through which adult hippocampal neurogenesis modulates processing of aversive experience. To achieve a specific ablation of neurogenesis, we generated transgenic mice that express herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase specifically in neural progenitors and immature neurons. Intracerebroventricular injection of the prodrug ganciclovir caused a robust suppression of neurogenesis without suppressing gliogenesis. Neurogenesis ablation via this method or targeted x-irradiation caused an increase in context conditioning in trace but not delay fear conditioning. Data suggest that this phenotype represents opposing effects of neurogenesis ablation on associative and nonassociative components of fear learning. Arrest of neurogenesis sensitizes mice to nonassociative effects of fear conditioning, as evidenced by increased anxiety-like behavior in the open field after (but not in the absence of) fear conditioning. In addition, arrest of neurogenesis impairs associative trace conditioning, but this impairment can be masked by nonassociative fear. The results suggest that adult neurogenesis modulates emotional learning via two distinct but opposing mechanisms: it supports associative trace conditioning while also buffering against the generalized fear and anxiety caused by fear conditioning.

Cortical neural activities lead to changes in the cerebral blood flow (CBF), which involves astrocytic control of cerebrovascular tone. However, the manner in which astrocytic activity specifically leads to vasodilation or vasoconstriction is difficult to determine. Here, cortical astrocytes genetically expressing a light-sensitive cation channel, channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2), were transcranially activated with a blue laser while the spatiotemporal changes in CBF were noninvasively monitored with laser speckle flowgraphy in the anesthetised mouse cortex. A brief photostimulation induced a fast transient increase in CBF. The average response onset time was 0.7 ± 0.7 sec at the activation foci, and this CBF increase spread widely from the irradiation spot with an apparent propagation speed of 0.8-1.1 mm/sec. The broad increase in the CBF could be due to a propagation of diffusible vasoactive signals derived from the stimulated astrocytes. Pharmacological manipulation showed that topical administration of a K + channel inhibitor (BaCl2; 0.1-0.5 mM) significantly reduced the photostimulation-induced CBF responses, which indicates that the ChR2-evoked astrocytic activity involves K + signalling to the vascular smooth muscle cells. These findings demonstrate a unique model for exploring the role of the astrocytes in gliovascular coupling using non-invasive, time-controlled, cell-type specific perturbations.

The development of gene-encoded indicators and actuators to observe and manipulate cellular functions is being advanced and investigated. Expressing these probe molecules in glial cells is expected to enable observation and manipulation of glial cell activity, leading to elucidate the behaviors and causal roles of glial cells. The first step toward understanding glial cell functions is to express the probes in sufficient amounts, and the Knockin-mediated ENhanced Gene Expression (KENGE)-tet system provides a strategy for achieving this. In the present article, three examples of KENGE-tet system application are reviewed: depolarization of oligodendrocytes, intracellular acidification of astrocytes, and observation of intracellular calcium levels in the fine processes of astrocytes.

Impulsive and aggressive behaviors are both modulated by serotonergic signaling, specifically through the serotonin 1B receptor (5-HT1BR). 5-HT1BR knockout mice show increased aggression and impulsivity, and 5-HT1BR polymorphisms are associated with aggression and drug addiction in humans. To dissect the mechanisms by which the 5-HT1BR affects these phenotypes, we developed a mouse model to spatially and temporally regulate 5-HT1BR expression. Our results demonstrate that forebrain 5-HT1B heteroreceptors expressed during an early postnatal period contribute to the development of the neural systems underlying adult aggression. However, distinct heteroreceptors acting during adulthood are involved in mediating impulsivity. Correlating with the impulsivity, dopamine inthe nucleus accumbens is elevated in the absence of 5-HT1BRs and normalized following adult rescue of the receptor. Overall, these data show that while adolescent expression of 5-HT1BRs influences aggressive behavior, a distinct set of 5-HT1B receptors modulates impulsive behavior during adulthood. Nautiyal etal. show that serotonin 1B receptors modulate aggressive and impulsive behavior through distinct neural circuits. Adolescent expression of forebrain heteroreceptors influences aggressive behavior, while a separate population affects impulsive behavior during adulthood.

Although the CRISPR/Cas system has enabled one-step generation of knockout mice, low success rates of cassette knock-in limit its application range. Here we show that cloning-free, direct nuclear delivery of Cas9 protein complex with chemically synthesized dual RNAs enables highly efficient target digestion, leading to generation of knock-in mice carrying a functional cassette with up to 50% efficiency, compared with just 10% by a commonly used method consisting of Cas9 mRNA and single guide RNA. Our cloning-free CRISPR/Cas system facilitates rapid one-step generation of cassette knock-in mice, accelerating functional genomic research by providing various in vivo genetic tools.

The dorsal and ventral hippocampal regions (dHP and vHP) are proposed to have distinct functions. Electrophysiological studies have revealed intra-hippocampal variances along the dorsoventral axis. Nevertheless, the extra-hippocampal influences of dHP and vHP activities remain unclear. In this study, we compared the spatial distribution of brain-wide responses upon dHP or vHP activation and further estimate connection strengths between the dHP and the vHP with corresponding extra-hippocampal areas. To achieve this, we first investigated responses of local field potential (LFP) and multi unit activities (MUA) upon light stimulation in the hippocampus of an anesthetized transgenic mouse, whose CA1 pyramidal neurons expressed a step-function opsin variant of channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2). Optogenetic stimulation increased hippocampal LFP power at theta, gamma, and ultra-fast frequency bands, and augmented MUA, indicating light-induced activation of CA1 pyramidal neurons. Brain-wide responses examined using fMRI revealed that optogenetic activation at the dHP or vHP caused blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) fMRI signals in situ. Although activation at the dHP induced BOLD responses at the vHP, the opposite was not observed. Outside the hippocampal formation, activation at the dHP, but not the vHP, evoked BOLD responses at the retrosplenial cortex (RSP), which is in line with anatomical evidence. In contrast, BOLD responses at the lateral septum (LS) were induced only upon vHP activation, even though both dHP and vHP send axonal fibers to the LS. Our findings suggest that the primary targets of dHP and vHP activation are distinct, which concurs with attributed functions of the dHP and RSP in spatial memory, as well as of the vHP and LS in emotional responses.

An increase in the ratio of cellular excitation to inhibition (E/I ratio) has been proposed to underlie the pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric disorders, such as autism spectrum disorders (ASD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and Tourette's syndrome (TS). A proper E/I ratio is achieved via factors expressed in neuron and glia. In astrocytes, the glutamate transporter GLT1 is critical for regulating an E/I ratio. However, the role of GLT1 dysfunction in the pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric disorders remains unknown because mice with a complete deficiency of GLT1 exhibited seizures and premature death. Here, we show that astrocyte-specific GLT1 inducible knockout (GLASTCreERT2/+ /GLT1flox/flox, iKO) mice exhibit pathological repetitive behaviors including excessive and injurious levels of self-grooming and tic-like head shakes. Electrophysiological studies reveal that excitatory transmission at corticostriatal synapse is normal in a basal state but is increased after repetitive stimulation. Furthermore, treatment with an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist memantine ameliorated the pathological repetitive behaviors in iKO mice. These results suggest that astroglial GLT1 has a critical role in controlling the synaptic efficacy at corticostriatal synapses and its dysfunction causes pathological repetitive behaviors.

Smooth progress in the field of optogenetic research can be, as the suffix ‘-genetics’ indicates, expected using biological models that provide conditions suitable for genetic control or gene manipulation. The artificial expression of opsin molecules is expected to be carried out smoothly in mice compared with rats or non-human primates because of established inheritable genetic modification technologies in this species. However, when compared with the nematode or the fly, there are still many difficulties in the expression of opsin in mice if flexible gene manipulation is attempted.

In demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS), an imbalance between the demyelination and remyelination rates underlies the degenerative processes. Microglial activation is observed in demyelinating lesions; however, the molecular mechanism responsible for the homeostatic/environmental change remains elusive. We previously found that cystatin F (CysF), a cysteine protease inhibitor, is selectively expressed in microglia only in actively demyelinating/remyelinating lesions but ceases expression in chronic lesions, suggesting its role in remyelination. Here, we report the effects of manipulating the expression of CysF and cathepsin C (CatC), a key target of CysF, in a murine model of transgenic demyelinating disease, Plp4e/-. During the active remyelinating phase, both CysF knockdown (CysFKD) and microglial-selective CatC overexpression (CatCOE) showed a worsening of the demyelination in Plp4e/- transgenic mice. Conversely, during the chronic demyelinating phase, CatC knockdown (CatCKD) ameliorated the demyelination. Our results suggest that the balance between CatC and CysF expression controls the demyelination and remyelination process.

Freud-1/Cc2d1a represses the gene transcription of serotonin-1A (5-HT1A) autoreceptors, which negatively regulate 5-HT tone. To test the role of Freud-1 in vivo, we generated mice with adulthood conditional knock-out of Freud-1 in 5-HT neurons (cF1ko). In cF1ko mice, 5-HT1A autoreceptor protein, binding and hypothermia response were increased, with reduced 5-HT content and neuronal activity in the dorsal raphe. The cF1ko mice displayed increased anxiety- and depression-like behavior that was resistant to chronic antidepressant (fluoxetine) treatment. Using conditional Freud-1/5-HT1A double knock-out (cF1/1A dko) to disrupt both Freud-1 and 5-HT1A genes in 5-HT neurons, no increase in anxiety- or depression-like behavior was seen upon knock-out of Freud-1 on the 5-HT1A autoreceptor-negative background; rather, a reduction in depression-like behavior emerged. These studies implicate transcriptional dysregulation of 5-HT1A autoreceptors by the repressor Freud-1 in anxiety and depression and provide a clinically relevant genetic model of antidepressant resistance. Targeting specific transcription factors, such as Freud-1, to restore transcriptional balance may augment response to antidepressant treatment.

Identification of the causal effects of specific proteins on recurrent and partially reversible hearing loss has been difficult because of the lack of an animal model that provides reversible gene knockdown. We have developed the transgenic mouse line Actin-tTS::Nkcc1tetO/tetO for manipulatable expression of the cochlear K+ circulation protein, NKCC1. Nkcc1 transcription was blocked by the binding of a tetracycline-dependent transcriptional silencer to the tetracycline operator sequences inserted upstream of the Nkcc1 translation initiation site. Administration of the tetracycline derivative doxycycline reversibly regulated Nkcc1 knockdown. Progeny from pregnant/lactating mothers fed doxycycline-free chow from embryonic day 0 showed strong suppression of Nkcc1 expression (∼90% downregulation) and Nkcc1 null phenotypes at postnatal day 35 (P35). P35 transgenic mice from mothers fed doxycycline-free chow starting at P0 (delivery) showed weaker suppression of Nkcc1 expression (∼70% downregulation) and less hearing loss with mild cochlear structural changes. Treatment of these mice at P35 with doxycycline for 2 weeks reactivated Nkcc1 transcription to control levels and improved hearing level at high frequency; i.e., these doxycycline-treated mice exhibited partially reversible hearing loss. Thus, development of the Actin-tTS::Nkcc1tetO/tetO transgenic mouse line provides a mouse model for the study of variable hearing loss through reversible knockdown of Nkcc1.

Tears are extracellular fluid secreted from the lacrimal gland (LG). Tears consist of a dynamic tri-layered film composed of secretions from the LG, Meibomian gland, and conjunctival goblet cells. The LG secretes the aqueous component of the tear, the Meibomian gland secretes the lipid component, and conjunctival goblet cells secrete mucin. The regulation of LG activity via the autonomic nervous system has been recognized as fundamental to maintaining aqueous tear flow. Here, we describe the role of a hormone, peripheral serotonin, in tear secretion. We found that blood serotonin concentration, changed by feeding a diet deprived of the serotonin precursor tryptophan, correlated with tear secretion, and that a sustained decrease in serotonin resulted in LG atrophy and autophagy. The combination of a decrease in serotonin with the interruption of autonomic neural stimuli to the LG preceded these alterations. Furthermore, we found that the serotonin type 3a receptor expressed in LG acinar cells is involved in tear secretion via intracellular calcium mobilization. Our findings demonstrate that hormonal regulation by serotonin, in cooperation with the autonomic nervous system, regulates tear secretion.

Neural circuits undergo massive refinements during postnatal development. In the developing cerebellum, the climbing fiber (CF) to Purkinje cell (PC) network is drastically reshaped by eliminating early-formed redundant CF to PC synapses. To investigate the impact of CF network refinement on PC population activity during postnatal development, we monitored spontaneous CF responses in neighboring PCs and the activity of populations of nearby CF terminals using in vivo two-photon calcium imaging. Population activity is highly synchronized in newborn mice, and the degree of synchrony gradually declines during the first postnatal week in PCs and, to a lesser extent, in CF terminals. Knockout mice lacking P/Q-type voltage-gated calcium channel or glutamate receptor δ2, in which CF network refinement is severely impaired, exhibit an abnormally high level of synchrony in PC population activity. These results suggest that CF network refinement is a structural basis for developmental desynchronization and maturation of PC population activity. In the cerebellum, the climbing fiber to Purkinje cell network is extensively remodeled during postnatal development. Good et al. show that in vivo population activity of Purkinje cells in response to climbing fiber synaptic inputs is highly synchronized in newborn mice and massively desynchronized due to climbing fiber network refinement.

Mitochondrial dysfunction has been implicated in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative disorders, including multiple sclerosis (MS). To date, the investigation of mitochondrial dysfunction in MS has focused exclusively on neurons, with no studies exploring whether dysregulation of mitochondrial bioenergetics and/or genetics in oligodendrocytes might be associated with the etiopathogenesis of MS and other demyelinating syndromes. To address this question, we established a mouse model where mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) double-strand breaks (DSBs) were specifically induced in myelinating oligodendrocytes (PLP:mtPstI mice) by expressing a mitochondrial-targeted endonuclease, mtPstI, starting at 3 weeks of age. In both female and male mice, DSBs of oligodendroglial mtDNA caused impairment of locomotor function, chronic demyelination, glial activation, and axonal degeneration, which became more severe with time of induction. In addition, after short transient induction of mtDNA DSBs, PLP:mtPstI mice showed an exacerbated response to experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Together, our data demonstrate that mtDNA damage can cause primary oligodendropathy, which in turn triggers demyelination, proving PLP:mtPstI mice to be a useful tool to study the pathological consequences of mitochondrial dysfunction in oligodendrocytes. In addition, the demyelination and axonal loss displayed by PLP:mtPstI mice recapitulate some of the key features of chronic demyelinating syndromes, including progressive MS forms, which are not accurately reproduced in the models currently available. For this reason, the PLP: mtPstI mouse represents a unique and much needed platform for testing remyelinating therapies.