論文

In chronic demyelinating lesions of the central nervous system, insufficient generation of oligodendrocytes (OLs) is not due to a lack of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), because the accumulation of OPCs and premyelinating OLs can be observed within these lesions. Here we sought to identify the basis for the failure of OLs to achieve terminal differentiation in chronic demyelinating lesions through the utilization of plp1-overexpressing (Plp tg/-) mice. These mice are characterized by progressive demyelination in young adults and chronic demyelinating lesions at more mature stages. We show that neural stem cells, which are the precursors of OL-lineage cells, are present in the Plp tg/- mouse brain and that their multipotentiality and ability to self-renew are comparable to those of wild-type adults in culture. Lineage-tracing experiments using a transgenic mouse line, in which an inducible Cre recombinase is knocked in at the Olig2 locus, revealed that Olig2-lineage cells preferentially differentiated into OPCs and premyelinating OLs, but not into astrocytes, in the Plp tg/- mouse brain. These Olig2-lineage cells matured to express myelin basic protein but after that their processes degenerated in the chronic demyelinating lesions of the Plp tg/- brain. These results indicate that in chronic demyelinated lesions more OL-lineage cells are produced as part of the repair process, but their processes degenerate after maturation. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Melanopsin (OPN4) is a photosensitive G-protein-coupled photopigment and its ectopic expression enables control of neural activity induced by blue light. Here we report that we successfully expressed OPN4 in hypothalamic orexin/hypocretin neurons of double-transgenic mice (orexin-tTA; Bitet-O human OPN4 [hOPN4]/mCherry mice). In the double-transgenic mice, hypothalamic orexin neurons selectively expressed hOPN4 as well as mCherry as a reporter. We conducted slice patch-clamp recordings on hOPN4/mCherry-expressing orexin neurons, which showed long-lasting activation initiated by blue light even after the light was switched off. Optical fiber-guided blue light stimulation in the hypothalamus successfully initiated the electroencephalography pattern that reflects long-lasting wakefulness in the mice in vivo. Taken together, the results indicate that ectopic expression of hOPN4 in orexin neurons enables long-lasting activation of orexin neurons by blue light to control sleep/wakefulness of the mice. © 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd and the Japan Neuroscience Society.

Melanopsin (OPN4) is a photosensitive pigment originally found in a subtype of retinal ganglion cells and is a 7-transmembrane G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). Several previous reports showed that ectopic expression of OPN4 can be used as an optogenetic tool to control neural and cellular activities in various tissues. Compared with other optogenetic pigments, OPN4 is more sensitive to light, shows long-lasting activation, and can also control intracellular Ca2+ dynamics. Here, we review how the ectopic expression of OPN4 enables the control of neural and cellular activities in vivo. In the retina, the ectopic expression of melanopsin in retinal ganglion cells successfully restored the vision of blind mice. It has also been reported that ectopic expression of melanopsin in orexin/hypocretin neurons enabled control of wakefulness in mice by blue light. In addition to neural activity, the ectopic expression of OPN4 has been reported to enable circuit control of the nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) to enhance blood-glucose homeostasis in mice. We discuss the possibility of optogenetic control of other systems through the ectopic expression of OPN4. © 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd and the Japan Neuroscience Society.

Optogenetics is a powerful neuromodulatory tool with many unique advantages to explore functions of neuronal circuits in physiology and diseases. Yet, interpretation of cellular and behavioral responses following in vivo optogenetic manipulation of brain activities in experimental animals often necessitates identification of photoactivated neurons with high spatial resolution. Although tracing expression of immediate early genes (IEGs) provides a convenient approach, neuronal activation is not always followed by specific induction of widely used neuronal activity markers like c-fos, Egr1 and Arc. In this study we performed unilateral optogenetic stimulation of the striatum in freely moving transgenic mice that expressed a channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) variant ChR2(C128S) in striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs). We found that in vivo blue light stimulation significantly altered electrophysiological activity of striatal neurons and animal behaviors. To identify photoactivated neurons we then analyzed IEG expression patterns using in situ hybridization. Upon light illumination an induction of c-fos was not apparent whereas another neuronal IEG Npas4 was robustly induced in MSNs ipsilaterally. Our results demonstrate that tracing Npas4 mRNA expression following in vivo optogenetic modulation can be an effective tool for reliable and sensitive identification of activated MSNs in the mouse striatum. © 2012 Bepari et al.

Dynamic activity of glia has repeatedly been demonstrated, but if such activity is independent from neuronal activity, glia would not have any role in the information processing in the brain or in the generation of animal behavior. Evidence for neurons communicating with glia is solid, but the signaling pathway leading back from glial-to-neuronal activity was often difficult to study. Here, we introduced a transgenic mouse line in which channelrhodopsin-2, a light-gated cation channel, was expressed in astrocytes. Selective photostimulation of these astrocytes in vivo triggered neuronal activation. Using slice preparations, we show that glial photostimulation leads to release of glutamate, which was sufficient to activate AMPA receptors on Purkinje cells and to induce long-term depression of parallel fiber-to-Purkinje cell synapses through activation of metabotropic glutamate receptors. In contrast to neuronal synaptic vesicular release, glial activation likely causes preferential activation of extrasynaptic receptors that appose glial membrane. Finally, we show that neuronal activation by glial stimulation can lead to perturbation of cerebellar modulated motor behavior. These findings demonstrate that glia can modulate the tone of neuronal activity and behavior. This animal model is expected to be a potentially powerful approach to study the role of glia in brain function.

The neural inspiratory activity originates from a ventrolateral medullary region called the pre-Bötzinger complex (preBötC), yet the mechanism underlying respiratory rhythmogenesis is not completely understood. Recently, the role of not only neurons but astrocytes in the central respiratory control has attracted considerable attention. Here we report our discovery that an intracellular calcium rise in a subset of putative astrocytes precedes inspiratory neuronal firing in rhythmically active slices. Functional calcium imaging from hundreds of preBötC cells revealed that a subset of putative astrocytes exhibited rhythmic calcium elevations preceding inspiratory neuronal activity with a time lag of approximately 2 s. These preinspiratory putative astrocytes maintained their rhythmic activities even during the blockade of neuronal activity with tetrodotoxin, whereas the rhythm frequency was lowered and the intercellular phases of these rhythms were decoupled. In addition, optogenetic stimulation of preBötC putative astrocytes induced firing of inspiratory neurons. These findings raise the possibility that astrocytes in the preBötC are actively involved in respiratory rhythm generation in rhythmically active slices. © 2012 The Authors. The Journal of Physiology © 2012 The Physiological Society.

The genetic heterogeneity of autism poses a major challenge for identifying mechanism-based treatments. A number of rare mutations are associated with autism, and it is unclear whether these result in common neuronal alterations. Monogenic syndromes, such as fragile X, include autism as one of their multifaceted symptoms and have revealed specific defects in synaptic plasticity. We discovered an unexpected convergence of synaptic pathophysiology in a nonsyndromic form of autism with those in fragile X syndrome. Neuroligin-3 knockout mice (a model for nonsyndromic autism) exhibited disrupted heterosynaptic competition and perturbed metabotropic glutamate receptor - dependent synaptic plasticity, a hallmark of fragile X. These phenotypes could be rescued by reexpression of neuroligin-3 in juvenile mice, highlighting the possibility of reverting neuronal circuit alterations in autism after the completion of development.

Using in situ hybridization, we describe, for the first time, the profiles of expression of serotonin receptors (Htr/5-HTR) along the dorsal-ventral axis of mouse hippocampus. cRNA probes for most Htrs, excluding Htr6, were used. All hippocampal subregions and the entorhinal cortex cells providing input into the hippocampus were examined. The study shows that some, but not all, Htrs are expressed in the cells of the hippocampal circuitry. At both the subfield and the cell type levels, a somewhat overlapping pattern is observed. Four serotonin receptors, Htr1a, Htr2a, Htr2c and Htr7, display an expression pattern that changes along the dorsal-ventral axis of the hippocampus. Given the proposed functional differentiation of the hippocampus along its long axis, with the dorsal pole more involved in cognitive functions and the ventral pole more involved in mood and anxiety, our results suggest that serotonin receptors enriched in the ventral pole probably contribute to mood- and anxiety-related behaviours. © 2012 The Royal Society.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is characterized by obsession (recurrent intrusive thoughts) and compulsion (repetitive behaviors or mental acts). There is no consensus regarding the pathogenesis of OCD, which could support the idea that this disorder is heterogeneous. However, functional imaging data and surgical findings in humans suggest that the hyperactivity of the specific circuit including the striatum, called the cortico-striato-thalamo- cortical circuit, plays a role in OCD pathogenesis. Recently, validated animal models of OCD have been established, and they provide us the opportunity to address how the altered functional activity of this circuit contributes to the repetitive behavior in OCD. To test the causal relationship between the altered function of the circuit and behavioral abnormalities in animals, cell-type-specific manipulation and detection of changes in the circuit will be required. Optogenetic approaches may be used as tools to dissect the complex circuit. Moreover, mouse functional magnetic resonance imaging may yield data comparable to human imaging data.

We examined the expression and function of β-adrenergic receptor (β-AR) subtypes in both isolated primary rat microglia and a rat microglial cell line. RT-PCR analyses revealed that microglia expressed β1- and β2-ARs but not β3-ARs, whereas rat primary peritoneal macrophages expressed only β2-ARs. Stimulation of β-ARs on microglia by norepinephrine (NE) resulted in an increase in the level of intracellular cAMP and the subsequent expression of interleukin-1β mRNA. These effects were prevented by propranolol. Similar results were obtained with other selective β1-AR agonists and antagonists. β2-ARs on microglia were also functional. It is possible that noradrenergic innervations participate in the control of microglial functions via β1-ARs on microglia in the brain, because NE has high affinity for β1- and β3-ARs but little or no affinity for β2-ARs. It seems physiologically significant that microglia can be controlled by NE, which predominates over epinephrine in the brain, whereas macrophages in peripheral tissues can be controlled by epinephrine, which is at higher levels in peripheral tissues. © 2002 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

6-Nitronoradrenaline, a bioactive compound recently identified in the brain, is known to inhibit catechol-O-methyltransferase. To study its effect on dopamine metabolism, it was administered into rat striatum via a microdialysis probe. Other nitrated catechols (6-nitrodopamine, 6-nitro-DOPAC and 5-nitro-HVA) were studied for comparison. Tolcapone, a selective catechol-O-methyltransferase inhibitor, was used as a positive reference compound. Both 6-nitronoradrenaline and tolcapone increased striatal extracellular dopamine levels during the perfusion (at 100 μM concentration but not at 10 μM) and decreased the efflux of homovanillic acid. Tolcapone, but not other nitrated catechols, increased 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid efflux. None of the compounds inhibited MAO-B activity at 100 μM or lower. At 1 mM, 6-nitrodopamine inhibited MAO-B by 60%. Compared to tolcapone, other nitrated catechols were very weak COMT inhibitors in vitro. Neither tolcapone nor 6-nitronoradrenaline modified the metabolism of L-dopa which was given peripherally. In binding studies, both 6-nitronoradrenaline and other nitrocatechols failed to affect the dopamine transporter even at high μmolar concentrations. In conclusion, exogenous 6-nitronoradrenaline can act as a COMT inhibitor in the striatum and elevate striatal dopamine levels without inhibiting dopamine reuptake. Whether endogenous 6-nitronoradrenaline can be formed also in vivo in the striatum and act as a regulator of dopaminergic tone remains to be determined