論文

© 2018 American Heart Association, Inc. Background and Purpose: Exosomes play a pivotal role in neurogenesis. In the peri-infarct area after stroke, axons begin to regenerate but are inhibited by astrocyte scar formation. The direct effect and underlying molecular mechanisms of astrocyte-derived exosomes on axonal outgrowth after ischemia are not known. Methods: Using a semaphorin 3A (Sema3A) inhibitor, we explored neuronal signaling during axonal outgrowth after ischemia in rats subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion and in cultured cortical neurons challenged with oxygen-glucose deprivation. Furthermore, we assessed whether this inhibitor suppressed astrocyte activation and regulated astrocyte-derived exosomes to enhance axonal outgrowth after ischemia. Results: In rats subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion, we administered a Sema3A inhibitor into the peri-infarct area from 7 to 21 days after occlusion. We found that phosphorylated high-molecular weight neurofilament-immunoreactive axons were increased, glial fibrillary acidic protein-immunoreactive astrocytes were decreased, and functional recovery was promoted at 28 days after middle cerebral artery occlusion. In cultured neurons, the Sema3A inhibitor decreased Rho family GTPase 1, increased R-Ras, which phosphorylates Akt and glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK-3β), selectively increased phosphorylated GSK-3β in axons, and thereby enhanced phosphorylated high-molecular weight neurofilament-immunoreactive axons after oxygen-glucose deprivation. In cultured astrocytes, the Sema3A inhibitor suppressed activation of astrocytes induced by oxygen-glucose deprivation. Exosomes secreted from ischemic astrocytes treated with the Sema3A inhibitor further promoted axonal elongation and increased prostaglandin D 2 synthase expression on microarray analysis. GSK-3β + and prostaglandin D 2 synthase + neurons were robustly increased after treatment with the Sema3A inhibitor in the peri-infarct area. Conclusions: Neuronal Rho family GTPase 1/R-Ras/Akt/GSK-3β signaling, axonal GSK-3β expression, and astrocyte-derived exosomes with prostaglandin D 2 synthase expression contribute to axonal outgrowth and functional recovery after stroke.

© 2019 The Authors Background: The characteristic structure of motor neurons (MNs), particularly of the long axons, becomes damaged in the early stages of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). However, the molecular pathophysiology of axonal degeneration remains to be fully elucidated. Method: Two sets of isogenic human-induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSCs)-derived MNs possessing the single amino acid difference (p.H517D) in the fused in sarcoma (FUS) were constructed. By combining MN reporter lentivirus, MN specific phenotype was analyzed. Moreover, RNA profiling of isolated axons were conducted by applying the microfluidic devices that enable axon bundles to be produced for omics analysis. The relationship between the target gene, which was identified as a pathological candidate in ALS with RNA-sequencing, and the MN phenotype was confirmed by intervention with si-RNA or overexpression to hiPSCs-derived MNs and even in vivo. The commonality was further confirmed with other ALS-causative mutant hiPSCs-derived MNs and human pathology. Findings: We identified aberrant increasing of axon branchings in FUS-mutant hiPSCs-derived MN axons compared with isogenic controls as a novel phenotype. We identified increased level of Fos-B mRNA, the binding target of FUS, in FUS-mutant MNs. While Fos-B reduction using si-RNA or an inhibitor ameliorated the observed aberrant axon branching, Fos-B overexpression resulted in aberrant axon branching even in vivo. The commonality of those phenotypes was further confirmed with other ALS causative mutation than FUS. Interpretation: Analyzing the axonal fraction of hiPSC-derived MNs using microfluidic devices revealed that Fos-B is a key regulator of FUS-mutant axon branching. Fund: Japan Agency for Medical Research and development; Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology Clinical Research, Innovation and Education Center, Tohoku University Hospital; Japan Intractable Diseases (Nanbyo) Research Foundation; the Kanae Foundation for the Promotion of Medical Science; and “Inochi-no-Iro” ALS research grant.

© 2019 Objectives: To determine the changes of muscle conditions of lower leg after stretch shortening cycle exercises by MRI. Subjects and methods: This study included 20 healthy male adult volunteers. After conducting control MRI, each subject performed 3 sets of exercise loading, each set consisting of 100 repetitions of rebound jumping on one foot. MRIs were performed immediately after exercise loading (0 h), 6, 30, and 168 h later. After constructing T1/T2/Fractional Anisotropy (FA)/Apparent Diffusion Coefficient (ADC) maps, the changes of three skeletal muscles of the leg (the tibialis anterior [TA], soleus [SOL], and gastrocnemius [GA]) were quantitatively evaluated in each map at each time point. Results: The T1 and T2 values were prolonged after exercise loading, and there was a delay in the recovery of T1 at 6 and 30 h after exercise loading, as compared to those of T2 values over time. The ADC values were elevated in all three muscles immediately after exercise loading, then recovered more slowly than T1 and T2, and still had not returned to baseline 168 h after exercise loading. The FA value decreased in all three muscles after exercise loading, with the greatest decrease occurring immediately after exercise loading. As with the ADC values, the FA values were slow to recover from the decrease, and had not returned to baseline levels 168 h post-loading. Conclusion: The delay of T1 value recovery suggested that the T1 value may reflect the muscle condition like fatigue and damage. Changes in the ADC and FA values over time suggested that structural changes such as minute muscular injuries can be detected by diffusion-weighted MRI. Meanwhile, the changes observed in the T1 and T2 values suggested that the measured relaxation time data reflected not only the water volume in the muscle, but also the muscle condition after exercise loading.

© 2018 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim Patient X: A 67-year-old Caucasian man slips on a patch of ice. He has abrasions to his hands and has sustained significant damage to his hip. At the emergency room, he informs clinicians he takes atorvastatin, metformin, and glimepiride to treat hypertension and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM). X-rays reveal a fractured hip, which will require total hip replacement surgery.

© 2019, The Author(s). We proposed a generic template-derived approach for (semi-) automated brain extraction in animal MRI studies and evaluated our implementation with different animal models (macaque, marmoset, rodent) and MRI protocols (T1, T2). While conventional MR-neuroimaging studies perform brain extraction as an initial step priming subsequent image-registration from subject to template, our proposed approach propagates an anatomical template to (whole-head) individual subjects in reverse order, which is challenging due to the surrounding extracranial tissue, greater differences in contrast pattern and larger areas with field inhomogeneity. As a novel approach, the herein introduced brain extraction algorithm derives whole-brain segmentation using rigid and non-rigid deformation based on unbiased anatomical atlas building with a priori estimates from study-cohort and an initial approximate brain extraction. We evaluated our proposed method in comparison to several other technical approaches including “Marker based watershed scalper”, “Brain-Extraction-Tool”, “3dSkullStrip”, “Primatologist-Toolbox”, “Rapid Automatic Tissue Segmentation” and “Robust automatic rodent brain extraction using 3D pulse-coupled neural networks” with manual skull-stripping as reference standard. ABX demonstrated best performance with accurate (≥92%) and consistent results throughout datasets and across species, age and MRI protocols. ABX was made available to the public with documentation, templates and sample material (https://www.github.com/jlohmeier/atlasBREX).

© 2019 The Japanese Society for Regenerative Medicine For the past few decades, spinal cord injury (SCI) has been believed to be an incurable traumatic condition, but with recent developments in stem cell biology, the field of regenerative medicine has gained hopeful momentum in the development of a treatment for this challenging pathology. Among the treatment candidates, transplantation of neural precursor cells has gained remarkable attention as a reasonable therapeutic intervention to replace the damaged central nervous system cells and promote functional recovery. Here, we highlight transplantation therapy techniques using induced pluripotent stem cells to treat SCI and review the recent research giving consideration to future clinical applications.

© The Author(s) (2019). Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Guarantors of Brain. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com. The mechanism by which dopaminergic neurons are selectively affected in Parkinson's disease is not fully understood. In this study, we found a dramatic increase in the expression of catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT), along with a lower level of DNA methylation, in induced pluripotent stem cell-derived dopaminergic neurons from patients with parkin (PARK2) gene mutations compared to those from healthy controls. In addition, a significant increase in the expression of COMT was found in dopaminergic neurons of isogenic PARK2 induced pluripotent stem cell lines that mimicked loss of function of PARK2 by CRISPR Cas9 technology. In dopamine transporter (DAT)-Cre mice, overexpression of COMT, specifically in dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra, produced cataleptic behaviours associated with impaired motor coordination. These findings suggest that upregulation of COMT, likely resulting from DNA hypomethylation, in dopaminergic neurons may contribute to the initial stage of neuronal dysfunction in Parkinson's disease.

Electrocorticography (ECoG) allows the monitoring of electrical field potentials from the cerebral cortex with high spatiotemporal resolution. Recent development of thin, flexible ECoG electrodes has enabled conduction of stable recordings of large-scale cortical activity. We have developed a whole-cortical ECoG array for the common marmoset. The array continuously covers almost the entire lateral surface of cortical hemisphere, from the occipital pole to the temporal and frontal poles, and it captures whole-cortical neural activity in one shot. This protocol describes a chronic implantation procedure of the array in the epidural space of the marmoset brain. Marmosets have two advantages regarding ECoG recordings, one being the homologous organization of anatomical structures in humans and macaques, including frontal, parietal, and temporal complexes. The other advantage is that the marmoset brain is lissencephalic and contains a large number of complexes, which are more difficult to access in macaques with ECoG, that are exposed to the brain surface.These features allow direct access to most cortical areas beneath the surface of the brain. This system provides an opportunity to investigate global cortical information processing with high resolutions at a sub-millisecond order in time and millimeter order in space.

© 2019 Miller, Hale, Okano, Okabe and Mitra. Neuroscience is enjoying a renaissance of discovery due in large part to the implementation of next-generation molecular technologies. The advent of genetically encoded tools has complemented existing methods and provided researchers the opportunity to examine the nervous system with unprecedented precision and to reveal facets of neural function at multiple scales. The weight of these discoveries, however, has been technique-driven from a small number of species amenable to the most advanced gene-editing technologies. To deepen interpretation and build on these breakthroughs, an understanding of nervous system evolution and diversity are critical. Evolutionary change integrates advantageous variants of features into lineages, but is also constrained by pre-existing organization and function. Ultimately, each species’ neural architecture comprises both properties that are species-specific and those that are retained and shared. Understanding the evolutionary history of a nervous system provides interpretive power when examining relationships between brain structure and function. The exceptional diversity of nervous systems and their unique or unusual features can also be leveraged to advance research by providing opportunities to ask new questions and interpret findings that are not accessible in individual species. As new genetic and molecular technologies are added to the experimental toolkits utilized in diverse taxa, the field is at a key juncture to revisit the significance of evolutionary and comparative approaches for next-generation neuroscience as a foundational framework for understanding fundamental principles of neural function.

© 2019 Combination of systemic and local drug therapy has been proved more effective and safer for idiopathic sudden sensorineural hearing loss by some clinical trials, and there are few laboratory researches on its pharmacokinetic behaviors in the inner ear. In the present study, we use a new in vivo imaging system to compare the pharmacokinetics of combined therapy (CT), with intravenous (IV) or transtympanic (TT) injection alone in both ears of transgenic GFAP-Luc mice. Biological half-life, total photon counts and the area under the curve (AUC) value significantly increased after CT. However, adding IV to TT injection cannot strengthen the peak photon of the drug in the inner ear. In addition, when D-luciferin is injected to the left ear the volume of total photon count and AUC value of CT-left ear are larger than the combined volume of TT-left ear and IV-left ear, suggesting a synergistic effect, and those of CT-right ear are almost equal to the summation of those of IV-right group and TT-right group, suggesting no amplifying effect on the risk of systemic side effect. This study showed that CT could deliver more drugs into the inner ear, and brought a longer therapeutic window, and were more effective than intravenous or transtympanic injection alone in the pharmacokinetics.

© 2019 Elsevier Ltd Striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs) control motor function. Hyper- or hypo-activity of MSNs coincides with basal ganglia-related movement disorders. Based on the assumption that lasting alterations in neuronal activity lead to structural changes in the brain, understanding these structural alterations may be used to infer MSN functional abnormalities. To infer MSN function from structural data, understanding how long-lasting alterations in MSN activity affect brain morphology is essential. To address this, we utilized a simplified model of functional induction by stimulating MSNs expressing channelrhodopsin 2 (ChR2). Subsequent structural alterations which induced long-term activity changes in these MSNs were investigated in the striatal pathway and its associated regions by diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and histological assessment with super-resolution microscopy. DTI detected changes in the striatum, substantia nigra, and motor cortex. Histological assessment found a reduction in the diameter of myelinated cortical axons as well as MSN dendrites and axons. The structural changes showed a high correlation between DTI parameters and histological data. These results demonstrated that long-term neural activation in the MSNs alters the diameter of MSN and cortical neurons fibers. This study provides a tool for understanding the causal relationship between functional and structural alterations.

© 2019 The Author(s) The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is an essential system that isolates the central nervous system from the internal environment. Increasing evidence has begun to reveal the molecules that are required for BBB integrity. However, how these components are regulated remains unclear. Here we report that a matrix metalloproteinase, Mmp2, is essential for the establishment of the BBB in Drosophila. In the absence of mmp2, the BBB becomes leaky, which allows the tracer to penetrate the brain. Moreover, the expression pattern of a junctional component, Neuroglian, is altered. We also find that the regulation of the amounts of particular extracellular matrix components is critical for BBB establishment. Furthermore, the process of mesenchymal-epithelial transition of BBB-forming cells is perturbed in the absence of Mmp2. These data indicate that the presence of Mmp(s), which is typically considered to be a risk factor for BBB degradation, is essential for BBB integrity in Drosophila. Biological Sciences; Molecular Biology; Cell Biology

© 2017 Elsevier Ireland Ltd and Japan Neuroscience Society Interest in the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) as a primate model animal has grown recently, in part due to the successful demonstration of transgenic marmosets. However, there is some debate as to the suitability of marmosets, compared to more widely used animal models, such as the macaque monkey and mouse. Especially, the usage of marmoset for animal models of human cognition and mental disorders, is still yet to be fully explored. To examine the prospects of the marmoset model for neuroscience research, the Marmoset Gene Atlas (https://gene-atlas.bminds.brain.riken.jp/) provides a whole brain gene expression atlas in the common marmoset. We employ in situ hybridization (ISH) to systematically analyze gene expression in neonate marmoset brains, which allows us to compare expression with other model animals such as mouse. We anticipate that these data will provide sufficient information to develop tools that enable us to reveal marmoset brain structure, function, cellular and molecular organization for primate brain research.

© 2019, The Author(s). We developed a reporter system that can be used in a dual manner in visualizing mature osteoblast formation. The system is based on a helper-dependent adenoviral vector (HDAdV), in which a fluorescent protein, Venus, is expressed under the control of the 19-kb human osteocalcin (OC) genomic locus. By infecting human and murine primary osteoblast (POB) cultures with this reporter vector, the cells forming bone-like nodules were specifically visualized by the reporter. In addition, the same vector was utilized to efficiently knock-in the reporter into the endogenous OC gene of human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), by homologous recombination. Neural crest-like cells (NCLCs) derived from the knock-in reporter iPSCs were differentiated into osteoblasts forming bone-like nodules and could be visualized by the expression of the fluorescent reporter. Living mature osteoblasts were then isolated from the murine mixed POB culture by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS), and their mRNA expression profile was analyzed. Our study presents unique utility of reporter HDAdVs in stem cell biology and related applications.

Neuronal Elav-like (nElavl or neuronal Hu) proteins are RNA-binding proteins that regulate RNA stability and alternative splicing, which are associated with axonal and synaptic structures. nElavl proteins promote the differentiation and maturation of neurons via their regulation of RNA. The functions of nElavl in mature neurons are not fully understood, although Elavl3 is highly expressed in the adult brain. Furthermore, possible associations between nElavl genes and several neurodegenerative diseases have been reported. We investigated the relationship between nElavl functions and neuronal degeneration using Elavl3-/- mice. Elavl3-/- mice exhibited slowly progressive motor deficits leading to severe cerebellar ataxia, and axons of Elavl3-/- Purkinje cells were swollen (spheroid formation), followed by the disruption of synaptic formation of axonal terminals. Deficit in axonal transport and abnormalities in neuronal polarity was observed in Elavl3-/- Purkinje cells. These results suggest that nElavl proteins are crucial for the maintenance of axonal homeostasis in mature neurons. Moreover, Elavl3-/- mice are unique animal models that constantly develop slowly progressive axonal degeneration. Therefore, studies of Elavl3-/- mice will provide new insight regarding axonal degenerative processes.

© 2019 Elsevier Inc. The common marmoset (marmoset; Callithrix jacchus) shows anatomical and physiological features that are in common with humans. Establishing induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from marmosets holds promise for enhancing the utility of the animal model for biomedical and preclinical studies. However, in spite of the presence of some previous reports on marmoset iPSCs, the reprogramming technology in marmosets is still under development. In particular, the efficacy of RNA-based reprogramming has not been thoroughly investigated. In this study, we attempted RNA-based reprogramming for deriving iPSCs from marmoset fibroblasts. Although we failed to derive iPSC colonies from marmoset fibroblasts by using a conventional RNA-based reprogramming method previously validated in human fibroblasts, we succeeded in deriving colony-forming cells with a modified induction medium supplemented with a novel set of small molecules. Importantly, following one-week culture of the colony-forming cells in conventional embryonic stem cell (ESC) medium, we obtained iPSCs which express endogenous pluripotent markers and show a differentiation potential into all three germ layers. Taken together, our results indicate that RNA-based reprogramming, which is valuable for deriving transgene-free iPSCs, is applicable to marmosets.

© 2018 The Japanese Society for Regenerative Medicine Introduction: Pendred syndrome is an autosomal-recessive disease characterized by congenital hearing loss and thyroid goiter. Previously, cell stress susceptibilities were shown to increase in patient-derived cells with intracellular aggregation using an in vitro acute cochlear cell model derived from patient-specific pluripotent stem (iPS) cells. Moreover, we showed that rapamycin can relieve cell death. However, studies regarding long-term cell survival without cell stressors that mimic the natural course of disease or the rational minimum concentration of rapamycin that prevents cell death are missing. Methods: In this report, we first investigated the rational minimum concentration of rapamycin using patient-specific iPS cells derived-cochlear cells with three different conditions of acute stress. We next confirmed the effects of rapamycin in long-term cell survival and phenotypes by using cochlear cells derived from three different patient-derived iPS cells. Results: We found that inner ear cells derived from Pendred syndrome patients are more vulnerable than those from healthy individuals during long-term culturing; however, this susceptibility was relieved via treatment with low-dose rapamycin. The slow progression of hearing loss in patients may be explained, in part, by the vulnerability observed in patient cells during long-term culturing. We successfully evaluated the rational minimum concentration of rapamycin for treatment of Pendred syndrome. Conclusion: Our results suggest that low-dose rapamycin not only decreases acute symptoms but may prevent progression of hearing loss in Pendred syndrome patients.

© 2019 SLC26A4 is the second most frequent gene implicated in congenital hearing loss after GJB2 mutations. Here, we report the generation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), from a patient who was carrying a homozygous c.919-2A>G variant in the SLC26A4 gene. This is the most common variant of SLC26A4 gene in the Chinese population and the second most prevalent one in other Asian countries. The established patient-derived iPSC displayed all the features of pluripotent stem cell markers and had the ability to differentiate into all of the three germ layers and possessed a normal karyotype.