論文

© 2017, Springer Science+Business Media New York. Aberrant mitochondrial function is associated with many neurological diseases. Mitophagy is a key mechanism for the elimination of damaged mitochondria and maintenance of mitochondrial homeostasis. Induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cell technologies developed over the last decade have allowed us to analyze functions of the human neuron. Here we describe an efficient induction method from human iPS cells to neurons, followed by an image-based mitophagy assay.

© Lin et al. Understanding the connectivity architecture of entire vertebrate brains is a fundamental but difficult task. Here we present an integrated neuro-histological pipeline as well as a grid-based tracer injection strategy for systematic mesoscale connectivity mapping in the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Individual brains are sectioned into ~1700 20 mm sections using the tape transfer technique, permitting high quality 3D reconstruction of a series of histochemical stains (Nissl, myelin) interleaved with tracer labeled sections. Systematic in-vivo MRI of the individual animals facilitates injection placement into reference-atlas defined anatomical compartments. Further, by combining the resulting 3D volumes, containing informative cytoarchitectonic markers, with in-vivo and ex-vivo MRI, and using an integrated computational pipeline, we are able to accurately map individual brains into a common reference atlas despite the significant individual variation. This approach will facilitate the systematic assembly of a mesoscale connectivity matrix together with unprecedented 3D reconstructions of brain-wide projection patterns in a primate brain.

© The Author(s) 2018. Chronic pain induced by nerve damage due to trauma or invasion of cancer to the bone elicits severe ongoing pain as well as hyperalgesia and allodynia likely reflecting adaptive changes within central circuits that amplify nociceptive signals. The present study explored the possible contribution of the mesolimbic dopaminergic circuit in promoting allodynia related to neuropathic and cancer pain. Mice with ligation of the sciatic nerve or treated with intrafemoral osteosarcoma cells showed allodynia to a thermal stimulus applied to the paw on the injured side. Patch clamp electrophysiology revealed that the intrinsic neuronal excitability of ventral tegmental area (VTA) dopamine neurons projecting to the nucleus accumbens (N.Acc.) was significantly reduced in those mice. We used tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-cre mice that were microinjected with adeno-associated virus (AAV) to express channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) to allow optogenetic stimulation of VTA dopaminergic neurons in the VTA or in their N.Acc. terminals. Optogenetic activation of these cells produced a significant but transient anti-allodynic effect in nerve injured or tumor-bearing mice without increasing response thresholds to thermal stimulation in sham-operated animals. Suppressed activity of mesolimbic dopaminergic neurons is likely to contribute to decreased inhibition of N.Acc. output neurons and to neuropathic or cancer pain-induced allodynia suggesting strategies for modulation of pathological pain states.

© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) was first identified as a potent mitogen for mature hepatocytes, and has also gained attention as a strong neurotrophic factor in the central nervous system. We found that during the acute phase of spinal cord injury (SCI) in rats, c-Met, the specific receptor for HGF, increases sharply, while the endogenous HGF up-regulation is relatively weak. Introducing exogenous HGF into the spinal cord by injecting an HGF-expressing viral vector significantly increased the neuron and oligodendrocyte survival, angiogenesis, and axonal regeneration, to reduce the area of damage and to promote functional recovery in rats after SCI. Other recent studies in rodents have shown that exogenously administered HGF during the acute phase of SCI reduces astrocyte activation to decrease glial scar formation, and exerts anti-inflammatory effects to reduce leukocyte infiltration. We also reported that the intrathecal infusion of recombinant human HGF (intrathecal rhHGF) improves neurological hand function after cervical contusive SCI in the common marmoset, a non-human primate. Based on these collective results, we conducted a phase I/II clinical trial of intrathecal rhHGF for patients with acute cervical SCI who showed a modified Frankel grade of A/B1/B2 72 h after injury onset, from June 2014 to May 2018.

© 2018, The Author(s). Neural connectivity has recently been shown to be altered after spinal cord injury (SCI) not only in the spinal cord but also in the brain. However, to date, no studies have analyzed the functional alterations after SCI in various areas of the cerebral cortex over time. To examine the plasticity of the neural connectivity in the brain after SCI, we performed resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) in awake adult mice pre- and post-SCI. After a complete thoracic SCI, the functional connectivity between the primary motor (MOp) and primary sensory (SSp) areas was significantly decreased during the chronic phase. In contrast, the connectivity between the MOp and motivation area was increased. Thus, impairments in sensory and motor connections after SCI led to a time-dependent compensatory upregulation of “motor functional motivation”. Moreover, the functional connectivity between the SSp and pain-related areas, such as the caudoputamen (CP) and the anterior cingulate area (ACA), was strengthened during the chronic phase, thus suggesting that rs-fMRI can indicate the presence of neuropathic pain after SCI. Therefore, rs-fMRI is a useful tool for revealing the pathological changes that occur in the brain after SCI.

© 2018 The Authors To understand brain circuits of cognitive behaviors under natural conditions, we developed techniques for imaging neuronal activities from large neuronal populations in the deep layer cortex of the naturally behaving common marmoset. Animals retrieved food pellets or climbed ladders as a miniature fluorescence microscope monitored hundreds of calcium indicator-expressing cortical neurons in the right primary motor cortex. This technique, which can be adapted to other brain regions, can deepen our understanding of brain circuits by facilitating longitudinal population analyses of neuronal representation associated with cognitive naturalistic behaviors and their pathophysiological processes. Kondo et al. demonstrate calcium imaging from neuronal populations using a miniature fluorescence microscope in naturally behaving non-human primates (NHPs), common marmosets. This technique marks an advance beyond methods that use fixed head positioning, which limits the study of complex, self-determined behaviors such as social interactions or fear and anxiety.

© 2018 The Royal Society of Chemistry. This report describes the design and evaluation of phosphorylated 7-ethyl-10-hydroxycamptothecin (SN38-P), which selectively eliminates tumor-forming proliferative stem cells, including human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) and neural stem cells, from iPSC-derived neural cell mixtures. Results of the present study demonstrate that simple phosphorylation of an anticancer drug can provide a safe, cost-effective, and chemically-defined tool for decontaminating hiPSC-derived neuron.

© 2018 Chai et al. Multiple congenital disorders often present complex phenotypes, but how the mutation of individual genetic factors can lead to multiple defects remains poorly understood. In the present study, we used human neuroepithelial (NE) cells and CHARGE patient-derived cells as an in vitro model system to identify the function of chromodomain helicase DNA-binding 7 (CHD7) in NE–neural crest bifurcation, thus revealing an etiological link between the central nervous system (CNS) and craniofacial anomalies observed in CHARGE syndrome. We found that CHD7 is required for epigenetic activation of superenhancers and CNS-specific enhancers, which support the maintenance of the NE and CNS lineage identities. Furthermore, we found that BRN2 and SOX21 are downstream effectors of CHD7, which shapes cellular identities by enhancing a CNS-specific cellular program and indirectly repressing non-CNS-specific cellular programs. Based on our results, CHD7, through its interactions with superenhancer elements, acts as a regulatory hub in the orchestration of the spatiotemporal dynamics of transcription factors to regulate NE and CNS lineage identities.

© 2018 The Authors Stem Cells published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of AlphaMed Press There have been numerous attempts to develop stem cell transplantation approaches to promote the regeneration of spinal cord injury (SCI). Our multicenter team is currently planning to launch a first-in-human clinical study of an induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-based cell transplant intervention for subacute SCI. This trial was conducted as class I regenerative medicine protocol as provided for under Japan's Act on the Safety of Regenerative Medicine, using neural stem/progenitor cells derived from a clinical-grade, integration-free human “iPSC stock” generated by the Kyoto University Center for iPS Cell Research and Application. In the present article, we describe how we are preparing to initiate this clinical study, including addressing the issues of safety and tumorigenesis as well as practical problems that must be overcome to enable the development of therapeutic interventions for patients with chronic SCI. Stem Cells 2019;37:6–13.

© 2018 The Author(s). Background: Contact domains of chromatin serve as a fundamental unit to regulate action of enhancers for target genes. Looping between a pair of CCCTC-binding factor (CTCF)-binding sites in convergent orientations underlies the formation of contact domains, while those in divergent orientations establish domain boundaries. However, every CTCF site is not necessarily engaged in loop or boundary structures, leaving functions of CTCF in varied genomic contexts still elusive. The locus containing Tfap2c and Bmp7 encompasses two contact domains separated by a region between the two genes, termed transition zone (TZ), characterized by two arrays of CTCF sites in divergent configuration. In this study, we created deletion and inversion alleles of these and other regions across the locus and investigated how they impinge on the conformation. Results: Deletion of the whole two CTCF arrays with the CRISPR/Cas9 system resulted in impairment of blocking of chromatin contacts by the TZ, as assessed by the circular chromatin conformation capture assay (4C-seq). Deletion and inversion of either of the two arrays similarly, but less pronouncedly, led to reduction in the blocking activity. Thus, the divergent configuration provides the TZ with the strong boundary activity. Uniquely, we show the TZ harbors a 50-kb region within one of the two arrays that contacts broadly with the both flanking intervals, regardless of the presence or orientation of the other CTCF array. Further, we show the boundary CTCF array has little impact on intra-domain folding; instead, locally associating CTCF sites greatly affect it. Conclusions: Our results show that the TZ not only separates the two domains, but also bears a wide interval that shows isotropic behavior of chromatin folding, indicating a potentially complex nature of actual boundaries in the genome. We also show that CTCF-binding sites inside a domain greatly contribute to the intra-domain folding of chromatin. Thus, the study reveals diverse and context-dependent roles of CTCF in organizing chromatin conformation at different levels.

© Author(s) 2018. We present a new 3D digital brain atlas of the non-human primate, common marmoset monkey (Callithrix jacchus), with MRI and coregistered Nissl histology data. To the best of our knowledge this is the first comprehensive digital 3D brain atlas of the common marmoset having normalized multi-modal data, cortical and sub-cortical segmentation, and in a common file format (NIfTI). The atlas can be registered to new data, is useful for connectomics, functional studies, simulation and as a reference. The atlas was based on previously published work but we provide several critical improvements to make this release valuable for researchers. Nissl histology images were processed to remove illumination and shape artifacts and then normalized to the MRI data. Brain region segmentation is provided for both hemispheres. The data is in the NIfTI format making it easy to integrate into neuroscience pipelines, whereas the previous atlas was in an inaccessible file format. We also provide cortical, mid-cortical and white matter boundary segmentations useful for visualization and analysis.

© 2018 The Author(s). Ghrelin exerts a wide range of physiological actions throughout the body and appears to be a promising target for disease therapy. Endogenous ghrelin receptors (GHSRs) are present in extrahypothalamic sites including the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc), which is related to phenotypic dysregulation or frank degeneration in Parkinson's disease (PD). Here we found a dramatic decrease in the expression of GHSR in PD-specific induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived dopaminergic (DAnergic) neurons generated from patients carrying parkin gene (PARK2) mutations compared to those from healthy controls. Consistently, a significant decrease in the expression of GHSR was found in DAnergic neurons of isogenic PARK2-iPSC lines that mimicked loss of function of the PARK2 gene through CRISPR Cas9 technology. Furthermore, either intracerebroventricular injection or microinjection into the SNc of the selective GHSR1a antagonist [D-Lys3]-GHRP6 in normal mice produced cataleptic behaviors related to dysfunction of motor coordination. These findings suggest that the down-regulation of GHSRs in SNc-DA neurons induced the initial dysfunction of DA neurons, leading to extrapyramidal disorder under PD.

© 2018 The Author(s). There is, at present, no curative treatment for genetic hearing loss. We have previously reported that transuterine gene transfer of wild type CONNEXIN30 (CX30) genes into otocysts in CX30-deleted mice could restore hearing. Cell transplantation therapy might be another therapeutic option, although it is still unknown whether stem cell-derived progenitor cells could migrate into mouse otocysts. Here, we show successful cell transplantation of progenitors of outer sulcus cell-like cells derived from human-derived induced pluripotent stem cells into mouse otocysts on embryonic day 11.5. The delivered cells engrafted more frequently in the non-sensory region in the inner ear of CX30-deleted mice than in wild type mice and survived for up to 1 week after transplantation. Some of the engrafted cells expressed CX30 proteins in the non-sensory region. This is the first report that demonstrates successful engraftment of exogenous cells in prenatal developing otocysts in mice. Future studies using this mouse otocystic injection model in vivo will provide further clues for developing treatment modalities for congenital hearing loss in humans.

© 2018 The Authors De novo mutations in SCN1A are the most common cause of Dravet syndrome (DS), an infantile-onset epileptic encephalopathy. In this study, human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) line FUi002-A was generated from skin fibroblasts obtained from a clinically diagnosed 26-year-old male DS patient with the R1525X variant of the SCN1A gene. Skin fibroblasts were reprogrammed using OriP/EBNA-1 based episomal plasmids expressing reprogramming factors expressing OCT4, SOX2, KLF-4, L-MYC, LIN28, and p53 shRNA. The transgene-free FUi002-A showed pluripotency, three germ layer differentiation capacity in vitro, and a normal karyotype. The resulting hiPSCs were heterozygous for the mutation in the SCN1A gene.

© 2017 The eyes absent (EYA)-like genes are essential for the formation of sensory organs among fly (Drosophila melanogaster) and mammals. EYA4, one of the vertebrate genes of Eya family, is reported to be causative for late-onset mid-frequency sensorineural hearing loss in humans, while Eya4-deficient mice exhibited congenital profound deafness and otitis media with effusion due to the eustachian tube dysmorphology. Because of the species difference in the phenotype, the pathophysiology of EYA4 in the human cochlea has yet to be elucidated. Here, we examine the expression pattern of EYA4 in the cochlea of common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), a non-human primate. The results indicated a distinct expression pattern of EYA4 in the adult marmoset cochleae, especially strong in all supporting cells, while in mouse their expressions were diminished. Interestingly, EYA4 expression in the hair cells, supporting cells and neurons was co-localized with sine oculis homeobox–SIX1, a transcription factor essential for the transcriptional activity of EYA4. The results revealed inter-species differences in the expression pattern of EYA4 gene in supporting cells between primates and rodents. The results also indicated a fundamental role of EYA4 in the primate auditory cells. Experiments with primate models such as marmosets or with human cochlear cells may provide cues about the unknown pathogenesis of EYA4-related hearing loss.

© 2018 Dravet syndrome (DS) is an infantile epileptic encephalopathy mainly caused by de novo mutations in the SCN1A gene encoding the α1 subunit of the voltage-gated sodium channel Nav1.1. As an in vitro model of this disease, we previously generated an induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) line from a patient with DS carrying a c.4933C>T (p.R1645*) substitution in SCN1A. Here, we describe developing a genome-edited control cell line from this DS iPSC line by substituting the point mutation with the wild-type residue. This artificial control iPSC line will be a powerful tool for research into the pathology of DS.

© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Intratumoral human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) heterogeneity has been reported in 16–36% of HER2-positive breast cancer and its clinical impact is under discussion. We examined the biological effects of HER2-heterogeneity on mouse models and analyzed metastatic brains by RNA sequence analysis. A metastatic mouse model was developed using 231-Luc (triple negative cells) and 2 HER2-positive cell lines, namely, HER2-60 and HER2-90 which showed heterogeneous and monotonous HER2 expressions, respectively. Metastatic lesions developed in 3 weeks in all the mice injected with HER2-60 cells, and in 69% of the mice injected with HER2-90 and 87.5% of the mice injected with 231-Luc. The median survival days of mice injected with 231-Luc, HER2-60, and HER2-90 cells were 29 (n = 24), 24 (n = 22) and 30 (n = 13) days, respectively. RNA sequence analysis showed that CASP-1 and its related genes were significantly downregulated in metastatic brain tumors with HER2-60 cells. The low expression of caspase-1 could be a new prognostic biomarker for early relapse in HER2-positive breast cancer.

© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) hold enormous promise for regenerative medicine. The major safety concern is the tumorigenicity of transplanted cells derived from iPSCs. A potential solution would be to introduce a suicide gene into iPSCs as a safety switch. The herpes simplex virus type 1 thymidine kinase (HSV-TK) gene, in combination with ganciclovir, is the most widely used enzyme/prodrug suicide system from basic research to clinical applications. In the present study, we attempted to establish human iPSCs that stably expressed HSV-TK with either lentiviral vectors or CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing. However, this task was difficult to achieve, because high-level and/or constitutive expression of HSV-TK resulted in the induction of cell death or silencing of HSV-TK expression. A nucleotide metabolism analysis suggested that excessive accumulation of thymidine triphosphate, caused by HSV-TK expression, resulted in an imbalance in the dNTP pools. This unbalanced state led to DNA synthesis inhibition and cell death in a process similar to a “thymidine block”, but more severe. We also demonstrated that the Tet-inducible system was a feasible solution for overcoming the cytotoxicity of HSV-TK expression. Our results provided a warning against using the HSV-TK gene in human iPSCs, particularly in clinical applications.

© 2017 Elsevier Ltd Although mice have been the most frequently used experimental animals in many research fields due to well-established gene manipulation techniques, recent evidence has revealed that rodent models do not always recapitulate pathophysiology of human neurological and psychiatric diseases due to the differences between humans and rodents. The recent developments in gene manipulation of non-human primate have been attracting much attention in the biomedical research field, because non-human primates have more applicable brain structure and function than rodents. In this review, we summarize recent progress on genetically-modified non-human primates including transgenic and knockout animals using genome editing technology.