論文

Whether SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complexes play roles in embryonic stem (ES) cells remains unknown. Here we show that SWI/SNF complexes are present in mouse ES cells, and their composition is dynamically regulated upon induction of ES cell differentiation. For example, the SWI/SNF purified from undifferentiated ES cells contains a high level of BAF155 and a low level of BAF170 (both of which are homologs of yeast SWI3 protein), whereas that from differentiated cells contains nearly equal amounts of both. Moreover, the levels of BAF250A and BAF250B decrease during the differentiation of ES cells, whereas that of BRM increases. The altered expression of SWI/SNF components hinted that these complexes could play roles in ES cell maintenance or differentiation. We therefore generated ES cells with biallelic inactivation of BAF250B and found that these cells display a reduced proliferation rate and an abnormal cell cycle. Importantly, these cells are deficient in the self-renewal capacity of undifferentiated ES cells and exhibit certain phenotypes of differentiated cells, including reduced expression of several pluripotency-related genes and increased expression of some differentiation-related genes. These data suggest that the BAF250B-associated SWI/SNF is essential for mouse ES cells to maintain their normal proliferation and pluripotency. The work presented here underscores the importance of SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complexes in pluripotent stem cells. ©AlphaMed Press.

Cross-species comparison of gene expression is a powerful approach for discovering genes that have been conserved throughout evolution. Conserved genes are presumably very important in the mechanisms related to the unique molecular functions in oocytes. The objective of this study was to identify genes expressed in the oocyte and conserved across three diverse vertebrate species. We report the global gene expression profiles of Bos taurus and Xenopus laevis oocytes on an NIA mouse development microarray that consists of 60-mer oligonucleotide probes representing more than 20 000 mouse transcripts derived from stem cell, oocyte, and early embryo cDNA libraries. Analysis based on intensity values revealed that 9853 and 10 046 genes are expressed in bovine and Xenopus oocytes respectively. Furthermore, previously published microarray data on preimplantation development in the mouse were used for a comparative analysis of global oocyte gene expression profiles. Interestingly, a substantial proportion of the genes expressed in mouse oocytes is conserved between the three species (74%, 7275 genes). Moreover, functional annotation of these conserved oocyte-expressed genes confirmed that certain functions are conserved among the three species. RNA metabolism and cell cycle were among the over-represented Gene Ontology terms in the biological process category. Finally, a pattern-matching analysis identified 208 conserved maternally expressed genes. Results from these cross-species hybridizations allowed numerous genes expressed in oocytes and conserved between Mus musculus, B. taurus, and X. laevis to be identified. This comparative analysis of oocyte transcript profiles revealed a high degree of conservation among species. © 2008 Society for Reproduction and Fertility.

Keratinocytes represent an easily accessible cell source for derivation of human induced pluripotent stem (hiPS) cells, reportedly achieving higher reprogramming efficiency than fibroblasts. However, most studies utilized a retroviral or lentiviral method for reprogramming of keratinocytes, which introduces undesirable transgene integrations into the host genome. Moreover, current protocols of generating integration-free hiPS cells from keratinocytes are mostly inefficient. In this paper, we describe a more efficient, simple-to-use, and cost-effective method for generating integration-free hiPS cells from keratinocytes. Our improved method using lipid-mediated transfection achieved a reprogramming efficiency of ~0.14% on average. Keratinocyte-derived hiPS cells showed no integration of episomal vectors, expressed stem cell-specific markers and possessed potentials to differentiate into all three germ layers by in vitro embryoid body formation as well as in vivo teratoma formation. To our knowledge, this represents the most efficient method to generate integration-free hiPS cells from keratinocytes. © AlphaMed Press 2014.

Recent evidence suggests that ovarian high-grade serous carcinoma (HGSC) originates from the epithelium of the fallopian tube. However, most mouse models are based on the previous prevailing view that ovarian cancer develops from the transformation of the ovarian surface epithelium. Here, we report the extensive histological and molecular characterization of the mogp-TAg transgenic mouse, which expresses the SV40 large T-antigen (TAg) under the control of the mouse müllerian-specific Ovgp-1 promoter. Histological analysis of the fallopian tubes of mogp-TAg mice identified a variety of neoplastic lesions analogous to those described as precursors to ovarian HGSC. We identified areas of normal-appearing p53-positive epithelium that are similar to 'p53 signatures' in the human fallopian tube. More advanced proliferative lesions with nuclear atypia and epithelial stratification were also identified that were morphologically and immunohistochemically reminiscent of human serous tubal intraepithelial carcinoma (STIC), a potential precursor of ovarian HGSC. Beside these non-invasive precursor lesions, we also identified invasive adenocarcinoma in the ovaries of 56% of the mice. Microarray analysis revealed several genes differentially expressed between the fallopian tube of mogp-TAg and wild-type (WT) C57BL/6. One of these genes, Top2a, which encodes topoisomerase IIα, was shown by immunohistochemistry to be concurrently expressed with elevated p53 and was specifically elevated in mouse STICs but not in the surrounding tissues. TOP2A protein was also found elevated in human STICs, low-grade and high-grade serous carcinoma. The mouse model reported here displays a progression from normal tubal epithelium to invasive HGSC in the ovary, and therefore closely simulates the current emerging model of human ovarian HGSC pathogenesis. This mouse therefore has the potential to be a very useful new model for elucidating the mechanisms of serous ovarian tumourigenesis, as well as for developing novel approaches for the prevention, diagnosis and therapy of this disease. Published 2014. This article has been contributed to by US Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA. © Published 2014. This article has been contributed to by US Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.

Upon removal of culture conditions that maintain an undifferentiated state, mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs) differentiate into various cell types. Differentiation can be facilitated by forced expression of certain transcription factors (TFs), each of which can generally specify a particular developmental lineage. We previously established 137 mouseESClines, each of which carried a doxycycline-controllable TF. Among them, Sox9 has unique capacity: its forced expression accelerates differentiation of mouse ESCs into cells of all three germ layers. With the additional use of specific culture conditions, overexpression of Sox9 facilitated the generation of endothelial cells, hepatocytes and neurons from ESCs. Furthermore, Sox9 action increases formation of p21 (WAF1/CIP1), which then binds to the SRR2 enhancer of pluripotency marker Sox2 and inhibits its expression. Knockdown of p21 abolishes inhibition of Sox2 and Sox9-accelerated differentiation, and reduction of Sox2 2 days after the beginning of ESC differentiation can comparably accelerate mouse ESC formation of cells of three germ layers. These data implicate the involvement of the p21-Sox2 pathway in the mechanism of accelerated ESC differentiation by Sox9 overexpression. The molecular cascade could be among the first steps to program ESC differentiation.

Transcription factors (TFs) bind to DNA and regulate the transcription of nearby genes. However, only a small fraction of TF binding sites have such regulatory effects. Here we search for the predictors of functional binding sites by carrying out a systematic computational screening of a variety of contextual factors (histone modifications, nuclear lamin-bindings, and cofactor bindings). We used regression analysis to test if contextual factors are associated with upregulation or downregulation of neighboring genes following the induction or knockdown of the 9 TFs in mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells. Functional TF binding sites appeared to be either active (i.e., bound by P300, CHD7, mediator, cohesin, and SWI/SNF) or repressed (i.e., with H3K27me3 histone marks and bound by Polycomb factors). Active binding sites mediated the downregulation of nearby genes upon knocking down the activating TFs or inducing repressors. Repressed TF binding sites mediated the upregulation of nearby genes (e.g., poised developmental regulators) upon inducing TFs. In addition, repressed binding sites mediated repressive effects of TFs, identified by the downregulation of target genes after the induction of TFs or by the upregulation of target genes after the knockdown of TFs. The contextual factors associated with functions of DNA-bound TFs were used to improve the identification of candidate target genes regulated by TFs. © Copyright 2014, Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. 2014.

As a first step to understand preimplantation development, we performed global gene-expression profiling of morula and blastocyst using the NIA 15k mouse cDNA microarray. Gene expression levels were measured four times for blastocyst and five times for morula. Student's t-test at the 5% significance level identified 428 genes upregulated and 748 downregulated in blastocyst compared to morula. This trend was consistent with semi-quantative RT-PCR analysis of sample genes. The upregulated genes known to be involved in critical regulatory processes, included Mist1, Id2, Hd1, and Requiem; the downregulated genes included CREB-binding protein, Per3, zinc finger protein 217, Krox-25, and miwi1. Such well-characterized genes and many novel genes provide markers for early stages in development and starting materials for further functional studies.

Mice homozygous for the tw5 allele arrest at gastrulation from defects associated with embryonic ectoderm development. The mutated gene has been genetically closely linked to the H-2K locus in the mouse MHC region, flanked by markers H-2Pb and D17Mit147. Aiming at the positional cloning of the mutated gene, we constructed a BAC contig spanning about 1 Mb of the genomic region. On the basis of our mapping and sequencing analysis of the BACs combined with public genome data, EST database searches, and gene prediction programs, we delimit the 1.06 cM of the tw5 critical region to 750 kb, and infer 36 genes (1/20 kb) encoded in the interval. All of the 33 genes tested were confirmed as expressed in embryonic tissues by RT-PCR analyses, and in many cases by EST expression profiles as well. Thus, this highly gene-rich region is essentially totally transcribed during early development and provides priority candidates to be screened for the tw5 embryonic lesion.

Understanding preimplantation development is important both for basic reproductive biology and for practical applications including regenerative medicine and livestock breeding. Global expression profiles revealed and characterized the distinctive patterns of maternal RNA degradation and zygotic gene activation, including two major transient waves of de novo transcription. The first wave corresponds to zygotic genome activation (ZGA); the second wave, named mid-preimplantation gene activation (MGA), precedes the dynamic morphological and functional changes from the morula to blastocyst stage. Further expression profiling of embryos treated with inhibitors of transcription, translation, and DNA replication revealed that the translation of maternal RNAs is required for the initiation of ZGA. We propose a cascade of gene activation from maternal RNA/protein sets to ZGA gene sets and thence to MGA gene sets. The large number of genes identified as involved in each phase is a first step toward analysis of the complex gene regulatory networks.

Large-scale molecular biology technologies such as DNA microarrays and large-scale in situ hybridization (ISH) are used to gain an appreciation of global attributes in biological tissues and cells. Although many of these efforts use cDNA probes, an approach that makes use of designed oligo probes should offer improved consistency at uniform hybridization conditions and improved specificity, as demonstrated by various oligo microarray platforms. We describe a new Web-based application that takes FASTA-formatted sequences as input, and returns both a list of the best choices for probes and a full report containing possible alternatives. Probe design for microarrays may use a scoring routine that optimizes probe intensity based upon an artificial neural network (ANN) trained to predict the average probe intensity from the physical properties of the probe and a screen for possible cross-reactivity. This new tool should provide a reliable way to construct probes that maximize signal intensity while minimizing cross-reactivity.

Understanding and harnessing cellular potency are fundamental in biology and are also critical to the future therapeutic use of stem cells. Transcriptome analysis of these pluripotent cells is a first step towards such goals. Starting with sources that include oocytes, blastocysts, and embryonic and adult stem cells, we obtained 249,200 high-quality EST sequences and clustered them with public sequences to produce an index of approximately 30,000 total mouse genes that includes 977 previously unidentified genes. Analysis of gene expression levels by EST frequency identifies genes that characterize preimplantation embryos, embryonic stem cells, and adult stem cells, thus providing potential markers as well as clues to the functional features of these cells. Principal component analysis identified a set of 88 genes whose average expression levels decrease from oocytes to blastocysts, stem cells, postimplantation embryos, and finally to newborn tissues. This can be a first step towards a possible definition of a molecular scale of cellular potency. The sequences and cDNA clones recovered in this work provide a comprehensive resource for genes functioning in early mouse embryos and stem cells. The nonrestricted community access to the resource can accelerate a wide range of research, particularly in reproductive and regenerative medicine.

Transplantation of nuclei (NT) from engineered mouse ES cells is a potentially powerful and rapid route to create knockout mice, obviating the need for matings to obtain germ-line chimeras. However, such an application is currently impossible, because NT often results in abnormalities in embryo and placenta. Although the epigenetic instability of several imprinted genes in ES cells and ES-derived NT mice has been demonstrated, it is not clear yet what causes the abnormalities. To gain perspective on the extent and types of changes, we have done gene expression profiling for mouse placentas produced by NT of ES cells and compared them with the expression profiles of placentas produced by NT of one-cell embryos. Based on microarray studies with the NIA 15K mouse cDNA collection, we report five principal aberrant events: (1) inappropriate expression of imprinted genes; (2) altered expression of regulatory genes involved in global gene expression, such as DNA methyltransferase and histone acetyltransferase; (3) increased expression of oncogenes and growth promoting genes; (4) overexpression of genes involved in placental growth, such as Plac1; and (5) identification of many novel genes overexpressed in ES-derived NT mouse placentas, including Pitrm1, a new member of the metalloprotease family. The results indicate that placentomegaly in ES-derived NT mice is associated with large-scale dysregulation of normal gene expression patterns. The study also suggests the presence of two regulatory pathways that may lead to histologically discernable placentomegaly. The discovery of groups of genes with altered expression may provide potential targets for intervention to mimic natural regulation more faithfully in NT mice. © 2003 Elsevier Science (USA).

A catalog of mouse genes expressed in early embryos, embryonic and adult stem cells was assembled, including 250 000 ESTs, representing approximately 39 000 unique transcripts. The cDNA libraries, enriched in full-length clones, were condensed into the NIA 15 and 7.4K clone sets, freely distributed to the research community, providing a standard platform for expression studies using microarrays. They are essential tools for studying mammalian development and stem cell biology, and to provide hints about the differential nature of embryonic and adult stem cells. © 2003 Académie des sciences. Published by Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved.

WNT signaling plays a major role in patterning the dermomyotome of the somitic mesoderm. However, knowledge of downstream target genes and their regulation is limited. To identify new genes involved in the development and early patterning of the somite, we performed a comparison of gene expression by microarray between the presomitic mesoderm and the 5 most recently formed somites of the mouse at embryonic day 9.5. We identified 207 genes upregulated and 120 genes downregulated in somite formation. Expression analysis and functional categorization of these genes demonstrate this to be a diverse pool that provides a valuable resource for studying somite development. Thus far, we have found three genes expressed in the dermomyotome of the early somite. Consistent with their expression patterns, these genes are transcriptional targets of WNT signals, but display differential activation by different WNTs. We further demonstrate that 1 of these genes, Troy, is a direct target of canonical WNT signaling, while the other 2 genes, Selp and Arl4, are not. Thus, our microarray study using microdissected tissues not only provides global information on gene expression during somite development, it also provides novel targets to study the inductive signaling pathways that direct somite patterning. © 2003 Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved.

Microarray expression profiling of a collection of 15,000 mouse genes with placental and embryonic RNAs revealed candidates for placental-enriched genes, three of which we have confirmed and further characterized. One, Plac1, strongly expressed in all trophoblast-derived cells in the placenta, has been described earlier (Genomics 68 (2000) 305). Here we report that of the other two, Plac8 expression is restricted to the spongiotrophoblast layer during development, whereas Plac9 is weakly expressed though highly enriched in placenta. For both, cDNAs with complete open reading frames were recovered and exon-intron structures inferred from comparisons of mouse cDNA and genomic sequence. The predicted proteins (112 and 108 amino acids) both contain putative signal peptides, with a coiled-coil segment of mPLAC9 as the only other detected motif. Genomic sequence comparisons reveal that in addition to an apparent pseudogene on chromosome 1, Plac8 is expressed at mouse cytoband 5e3. It is tightly conserved in human in a syntenically equivalent ortholog at 4q21.23. Plac9 is present in a single copy on chromosome 14, with a syntenically equivalent human ortholog at 10q22.3. Putative promoter regions up to 10 kb 5′ of the transcription units for Plac1, Plac8, and Plac9 contain sites for widely-expressed transcription factors which, by analogy to other instances, may be sufficient to explain placental enrichment. © 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Applications of microarray technologies to mouse embryology/genetics have been limited, due to the nonavailability of microarrays containing large numbers of embryonic genes and the gap between microgram quantities of RNA required by typical microarray methods and the miniscule amounts of tissue available to researchers. To overcome these problems, we have developed a microarray platform containing in situ-synthesized 60-mer oligonucleotide probes representing approximately 22,000 unique mouse transcripts, assembled primarily from sequences of stem cell and embryo cDNA libraries. We have optimized RNA labeling protocols and experimental designs to use as little as 2 ng total RNA reliably and reproducibly. At least 98% of the probes contained in the microarray correspond to clones in our publicly available collections, making cDNAs readily available for further experimentation on genes of interest. These characteristics, combined with the ability to profile very small samples, make this system a resource for stem cell and embryogenomics research.

The advent of microarray technology, coupled with the availability of mouse cDNA collections derived specifically from preimplantation embryos, helps to provide global gene expression profiles for the earliest stages of development. However, to determine the functions of the large numbers of genes of interest, massive systematic functional assays such as gene 'knockdown' experiments are required. As a first step, the relative suppression of blastocyst formation by differentially-modified antisense oligonucleotides to E-cadherin was assayed. The injection of 2′-methoxyethoxy (2′-MOE)-modified oligonucleotides blocked the formation of blastocysts in two-thirds of embryos, whereas the injection of either control missense 2′-MOE-oligonucleotides, or oligonucleotides with a Morpholino modification, had no significant effect on embryonic development. Thus, the 2′-MOE-modified antisense oligonucleotides are candidates for effective examination of roles of large numbers of genes during early embryological development.

Large-scale gene expression profiling was performed on embryo-derived stem cell lines to identify molecular signatures of pluripotency and lineage specificity. Analysis of pluripotent embryonic stem (ES) cells, extraembryonic-restricted trophoblast stem (TS) cells, and terminally-differentiated mouse embryo fibroblast (MEF) cells identified expression profiles unique to each cell type, as well as genes common only to ES and TS cells. Whereas most of the MEF-specific genes had been characterized previously, the majority (67%) of the ES-specific genes were novel and did not include known differentiated cell markers. Comparison with microarray data from embryonic material demonstrated that ES-specific genes were underrepresented in all stages sampled, whereas TS-specific genes included known placental markers. Investigation of four novel TS-specific genes showed trophoblast-restricted expression in cell lines and in vivo, whereas one uncharacterized ES-specific gene, Esg-1, was found to be exclusively associated with pluripotency. We suggest that pluripotency requires a set of genes not expressed in other cell types, whereas lineage-restricted stem cells, like TS cells, express genes predictive of their differentiated lineage.

A set of 7407 cDNA clones (NIA mouse 7.4K) was assembled from >20 cDNA libraries constructed mainly from early mouse embryos, including several stem cell libraries. The clone set was assembled from embryonic and newborn organ libraries consisting of ∼120,000 cDNA clones, which were initially re-arrayed into a set of ∼11,000 unique cDNA clones. A set of tubes was constructed from the racks in this set to prevent contamination and potential mishandling errors in all further re-arrays. Sequences from this set (11K) were analyzed further for quality and clone identity, and high-quality clones with verified identity were re-arrayed into the final set (7.4K). The set is freely available, and a corresponding database was built to provide comprehensive annotation for those clones with known identity or homology, and has been made available through an extensive Web site that includes many link-outs to external databases and analysis servers.

Key to the maternal-embryonic dialogue during early implantation are the extra embryonic trophoblast cells that play several critical roles including invasion of the maternal decidua. Cytotrophoblast proliferation and differentiation along an invasive pathway is regulated by a positive gradient of oxygen tension. We have employed transcript profiling to characterize the extra-embryonic tissues during early human implantation. We probed a cDNA library isolated from the ectoplacental cone region of stage 7.5 days post coitus mouse embryos with cDNA from hypoxic cultured human trophoblast cells. This identified the pattern of expression of a series of previously unknown genes that correlate to day 20 of human embryonic development. One EST was selected for further analysis since it is identical to the 1588-bp CGI-15 sequence assembled in silico. The human gene is organized into 10 exons 2063 bp in length. The open reading frame contains 1272 bp predicting protein composed of 365 amino acids. This gene is expressed in many tissues including those found in the reproductive tract. Its expression is regulated by oxygen tension and is unaffected by estradiol or progesterone treatment.