論文

Compliant polishing using elastic tools can achieve ultraprecision surface quality on freeform workpieces. However, when it comes to thin-walled parts, the challenge arises with the complex polishing mechanics between the tool and freeform surface, without the knowledge of which the surface form can be easily degraded. To address this, an analytical model is established that can predict the interaction mechanics during polishing. On this basis, two adaptive strategies are proposed. Experiments with controllable material removal verify the high accuracy of the model, and compliant polishing of a thin-walled freeform workpiece with highly precise removal consistency below 0.5 µm was achieved.

Super fine polishing with compliant tools can achieve nanoscale roughness, but has limited productivity due to low material removal rate (MRR). Increased spindle speed in high-speed polishing (HSP) might increase MRR, but significant challenges appear above 10,000 rpm because of centrifugal deformation of the tool and pad lifting due to hydroplaning phenomenon. Here, a tool offset compensation strategy is proposed for centrifugal deformation and novel pad patterning design that mitigates hydroplaning. Through this new approach, linear increase in MRR for spindle speed up to 24,000 rpm is demonstrated. This work lays the foundation for future developments of HSP in fabrication of ultraprecision optics.

CCD arrays encode color information via uniformly distributed red, green and blue pixels. Therefore, even a perfectly achromatic system projecting an image onto a CCD plane cannot possibly associate a single object point with the 3 or more discrete pixels encoding color content. Here, we propose and demonstrate a micro-lens array (MLA) design that simultaneously corrects chromatic aberrations and separates color channels to spatially distinct pixels. Starting from a commercially available aspheric condenser lens, methods to design and assess the performance of a few microns deep MLA etched on the convex optical surface are detailed. Actual fabrication is carried out by fluid jet polishing, with an optical form deviation of 0.24 μm rms. Finally, the MLA is assessed with a narrowly collimated beam containing two wavelengths, which produces distinct spots of diameter 10-15 μm as expected.

This paper reports on the commissioning of the first of Zeeko's 'IRP1200' 1.2m capacity 7-axis automated CNC polishing machines. These combo machines now support five different removal regimes, which are described. The machines differ substantially from Zeeko's more familiar 200mm machines on which we have focused before, in terms of overall architecture and detailed design. Large and small optics place different demands on part-fixturing, tooling, machine speeds and accelerations, metrology, slurry-handling, part-loading and access etc. These have had a profound effect on the development-path from 200 to 1.2m machines. Moreover, an advance in the kinematic design has extended the allowable range of surface slope-angles from typically 30° up to a hemisphere. The paper presents results from the pass-off trials, the first fluid-jet experiment, and the development of tooling to address a requirement to smooth a part with a local defect.

A new category of circular pseudo-random paths is proposed in order to suppress repetitive patterns and improve surface waviness on ultra-precision polished surfaces. Random paths in prior research had many corners, therefore deceleration of the polishing tool affected the surface waviness. The new random path can suppress velocity changes of the polishing tool and thus restrict degradation of the surface waviness, making it suitable for applications with stringent mid-spatial-frequency requirements such as photomask blanks for EUV lithography.

Compliant grinding and polishing refers to a class of fine material processing methods relying on one or more system element being compliant with the workpiece surface in a controllable and reversible manner, thus being distinct from conventional rigid wheel grinding and polishing. The resulting surface adaptability greatly facilitates the ultra-precision machining of freeform surfaces, with a level of accuracy and productivity difficult to achieve with conventional rigid processing systems. Aiming for a comprehensive review of signal advances on this topic in the last decades, this paper introduces a multi-level compliance categorization system to sort between distinctive processes. For each category, various perspectives are explored that pertain to principles, methodologies, and physical properties such as material removal and surface integrity. Finally, relative merits are analyzed, together with a discussion of the outlook and future trends.

The machining of low-rigidity components (e.g. thin-walled) with compliant tools presents accuracy challenges as both sides in contact are being deformed. The controlling method presented in this paper enables, for the first time, to obtain the desired and uniform material removal rate by controlling the nominal tool offset when two bodies (workpiece and tool) are compliant in grinding. A contact deformation model is proposed to predict the relation between the nominal and actual tool offsets. The function of nominal tool offsets and material removal rates is obtained based on the calibration tests. Spot grinding tests have been performed for the validation of the calculated material removal rates, normal grinding forces and spot sizes, presenting position-dependent characteristics. The controlling method has been tested for the case of continuous grinding the whole area of a circular aluminium thin wall. The surfaces ground under the time-variant tool offsets (proposed approach) reach the desired removal depth with an average error of ≤10% and achieve 11.2 μm–24.2 μm (P–V) accuracy in the elastic domain, compared with the error of 76.8%~113.7% and accuracy of 42.6 μm–50.1 μm (P–V) in the circumstance of constant tool offsets (conventional approach).

The progressive transition from Excimer to extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography is driving a need for flatter and smoother photomask blanks. It is, however, proving difficult to meet the next-generation specification with the conventional chemical mechanical polishing technology commonly used for finishing photomask blanks. This paper reports on the application of subaperture computer numerical control precessed bonnet polishing technology to the corrective finishing of photomask substrates for EUV lithography. Full-factorial analysis was used to identify process parameters capable of delivering microroughness below 0.5 nm rms while retaining relatively high removal rates. Experimental results show that masks prepolished to 300-600 nm peak-to-valley (P-V) flatness by chemical/mechanical polishing can then be improved down to 50-100 nm P-V flatness using the automated technology described in this paper. A series of edge polishing experiments also hints at the possibility of increasing the quality area beyond the 142 mm square defined in the official EUV photomask specification.

Ultraprecision polishing of miniature components and features with small curvature radii is limited by surface accessibility, availability of suitable tools and the capability to control material removal with sufficient spatial resolution. This paper presents the development of an approach for the application of nearly deterministic micro polishing using miniature tools with 400 μm radius. To enable implementation of the proposed approach, the effect of tool wear and polymer relaxation on the control of local contact pressure is characterized and compensation of tool wear along the tool path is introduced. The process is experimentally validated by application to features in nickel phosphor with lateral dimensions down to 2 mm, yielding roughness down to less than Sa 1 nm and profile accuracy better than 10 nm P-V.

The study focused on the development of the CAM system restricted to the fabrication of variable pitch screws by using turning centers. To develop the dedicated CAM system at a low cost, open source programming language was used as much as possible. A commercially available 3D-CAD system was used to model variable pitch screws. The edge data of the variable pitch screw was extracted from 3D-CAD data of the variable pitch screw, and then a number of the edge data were copied by the amount of feed in the longitudinal direction of the screw to make a cutter path. The successive cutter path was repeatedly generated by reducing the size of the edge data. The advantage of this method of generating the cutter path is very simple and easy to use, compared with the conventional CAM systems. During the cutter path generation, the system can detect the collision between the cutting tool and the workpiece. As a result, the validity of the developed CAM system for variable pitch screws fabrication was confirmed from several examples of the cutter path generation.

On one hand, the "float polishing" process consists of a tin lap having many concentric grooves, cut from a flat by single point diamond turning. This lap is rotated above a hydrostatic bearing spindle of high rigidity, damping and rotational accuracy. The optical surface thus floats above a thin layer of abrasive particles. But whilst surface texture can be smoothed to ~0.1nm rms (as measured by atomic force microscopy), this process can only be used on flat surfaces. On the other hand, the CNC "fluid jet polishing" process consists of pumping a mixture of water and abrasive particles to a converging nozzle, thus generating a polishing spot that can be moved along a tool path with tight track spacing. But whilst tool path feed can be moderated to ultra-precisely correct form error on freeform optical surfaces, surface finish improvement is generally limited to ~1.5nm rms (with fine abrasives). This paper reports on the development of a novel finishing method, that combines the advantages of "fluid jet polishing" (i.e. freeform corrective capability) with "float polishing" (i.e. super-smooth surface finish of 0.1nm rms or less). To come up with this new "hybrid" method, computational fluid dynamic modeling of both processes in COMSOL is being used to characterize abrasion conditions and adapt the process parameters of experimental fluid jet polishing equipment, including: (1) geometrical shape of nozzle, (2) position relative to the surface, (3) control of inlet pressure. This new process is aimed at finishing of next generation X-Ray / Gamma Ray focusing optics. © 2013 SPIE.

It is important to establish new approaches to create value-added products, such as craftwork or artistic goods, that are different from traditional methods of realizing high-quality and low-cost products. Such a production technology is commonly called “dexterous machining.” This study addresses the creation of artistic products by using soft materials with complicated shapes by employing an aqueous solution of sodium acetate to fix a workpiece and to suppress the deformation. Experimental results show that the use of an aqueous solution of sodium acetate has the potential to realize the “dexterous machining” of soft objects.

Fluid jet polishing is a machining process used increasingly in the ultra-precision manufacture of optical components and replication molds. While the process bears some similarities with abrasive water jet machining, it operates at much lower pressure and grit size. This paper presents a computational fluid dynamics model based on latest multiphase turbulent flow computational methods, simulating dynamically the interface between fluid and air. The model is then used to optimize surface texture performance down to 1 nm Ra on electroless nickel plated optical dies, while removing diamond turning marks. Some conclusions are drawn regarding the nature of the removal mechanism. © 2012 CIRP.

Edge mis-figure is regarded as one of the most difficult technical issues for manufacturing the segments of extremely large telescopes, which can dominate key aspects of performance. A novel edge-control technique has been developed, based on 'Precessions' polishing technique and for which accurate and stable edge tool influence functions (TIFs) are crucial. In the first paper in this series [D. Walker Opt. Express 20, 19787-19798 (2012)], multiple parameters were experimentally optimized using an extended set of experiments. The first purpose of this new work is to 'short circuit' this procedure through modeling. This also gives the prospect of optimizing local (as distinct from global) polishing for edge mis-figure, now under separate development. This paper presents a model that can predict edge TIFs based on surface-speed profiles and pressure distributions over the polishing spot at the edge of the part, the latter calculated by finite element analysis and verified by direct force measurement. This paper also presents a hybrid-measurement method for edge TIFs to verify the simulation results. Experimental and simulation results show good agreement.©2013 Optical Society of America.

This paper addresses two challenges in establishing a new process chain for polishing hexagonal segments for extremely large telescopes:- i) control of edge and corner profiles in small-tool polishing of hexagons, and ii) achieving the required smoothness of the bulk aspheric form. We briefly describe the performance of a CNC-grinding process used to create the off-axis asphere, which established the input-quality for subsequent processing. We then summarize processes for smoothing ground mid-spatials and pre- and corrective polishing using Zeeko CNC machines. The impact of two cases is considered; i) all processing stages are performed after the segment is cut hexagonal, and ii) final rectification of a hexagon after cutting from an aspherised roundel, as an alternative to ionfiguring. We then report on experimental results on witness samples demonstrating edges and corners close to the EELT segment specification, and results on a full-aperture spherical segment showing excellent surface smoothness. © 2012 SPIE.

Non-traditional laser and fluid jet processes exhibit time-dependent material removal characteristics. The feedrate profile must be planned carefully along the toolpath for accurate surface profile generation while ensuring that the kinematic limits of machine tools are not violated. Conventional methods iteratively solve a deconvolution/convolution problem on the dwell-time density (reciprocal of the feedrate profile) that is computationally heavy, may leave significant residual processing errors, and even generate infeasible feed profiles with the manufacturing equipment. This paper proposes a novel approach that fully addresses the shortcomings above. Dwell-time density is first expressed as a continuous B-spline profile. The associated dwell basis functions (DBF) are convolved with the process influence function (PIF) to generate new process basis functions (PBF). This approach conveniently allows the posing of the problem as a concurrent linear least-squares problem on the control points shared by the DBFs and PBFs while ensuring the numerical stability of the solution and smoothness of the feed profile. To mitigate excessive acceleration peaks and any ringing effect around the edges of the toolpath, this paper also presents methodologies for stabilizing the scheduled feedrate profile by introducing knot vector adjustments (adaptive knot dropping) and linear edge constraints. The effectiveness of the proposed method is demonstrated and validated through simulation case studies and experimentally in fluid jet processing of precision optics. Results indicate that the proposed technique overcomes the limitations of conventional strategies and allows high-frequency surface components beyond the first zero-power frequency of the process footprint to be tracked while still generating a smooth feed profile within the acceleration limits of a machine tool. This ability stems from the localization characteristics associated with the basis functions. By improving the accuracy of high-frequency components, the proposed method exhibits the potential to fabricate topographies with sharper edges, which has been a challenge for conventional techniques.