論文

Discoidin domain receptor (DDR) is a cell-surface receptor tyrosine kinase activated by the binding of its discoidin (DS) domain to fibrillar collagen. Here, we have determined the NMR structure of the DS domain in DDR2 (DDR2-DS domain), and identified the binding site to fibrillar collagen by transferred cross-saturation experiments. The DDR2-DS domain structure adopts a distorted jellyroll fold, consisting of eight beta-strands. The collagen-binding site is formed at the interloop trench, consisting of charged residues surrounded by hydrophobic residues. The surface profile of the collagen-binding site suggests that the DDR2-DS domain recognizes specific sites on fibrillar collagen. This study provides a molecular basis for the collagen-binding mode of the DDR2-DS domain.

Voltage-dependent K+ (K-v) channels play crucial roles in nerve and muscle action potentials. Voltage-sensing domains (VSDs) of K-v channels sense changes in the transmembrane potential, regulating the K+-permeability across the membrane. Gating modifier toxins, which have been used for the functional analyses of K-v channels, inhibit K-v channels by binding to VSD. However, the structural basis for the inhibition remains elusive. Here, fluorescence and NMR analyses of the interaction between VSD derived from K(v)AP channel and its gating modifier toxin, VSTx1, indicate that VSTx1 recognizes VSD under depolarized condition. We identified the VSD-binding residues of VSTx1 and their proximal residues of VSD by the cross-saturation (CS) and amino acid selective CS experiments, which enabled to build a docking model of the complex. These results provide structural basis for the specific binding and inhibition of K-v channels by gating modifier toxins.

Information on structures of protein-ligand complexes, including comparisons of known and putative protein-ligand-binding pockets, is valuable for protein annotation and drug discovery and development. To facilitate biomedical and pharmaceutical research, we developed PoSSuM (https://possum.cbrc.pj.aist.go.jp/PoSSuM/), a database for identifying similar binding pockets in proteins. The current PoSSuM database includes 191 million similar pairs among almost 10 million identified pockets. PoSSuM drug search (PoSSuMds) is a resource for investigating ligand and receptor diversity among a set of pockets that can bind to an approved drug compound. The enhanced PoSSuMds covers pockets associated with both approved drugs and drug candidates in clinical trials from the latest release of ChEMBL. Additionally, we developed two new databases: PoSSuMAg for investigating antibody-antigen interactions and PoSSuMAF to simplify exploring putative pockets in AlphaFold human protein models.

Eukaryotic mRNAs possess a poly(A) tail at their 30-end, to which poly(A)-binding protein C1 (PABPC1) binds and recruits other proteins that regulate translation. Enhanced poly(A)dependent translation, which is also PABPC1 dependent, promotes cellular and viral proliferation. PABP-interacting protein 2A (Paip2A) effectively represses poly(A)-dependent translation by causing the dissociation of PABPC1 from the poly(A) tail; however, the underlying mechanism remains unknown. This study was conducted to investigate the functional mechanisms of Paip2A action by characterizing the PABPC1–poly(A) and PABPC1–Paip2A interactions. Isothermal titration calorimetry and NMR analyses indicated that both interactions predominantly occurred at the RNA recognition motif (RRM) 2–RRM3 regions of PABPC1, which have comparable affinities for poly(A) and Paip2A (dissociation constant, Kd = 1 nM). However, the Kd values of isolated RRM2 were 200 and 4 μM in their interactions with poly(A) and Paip2A, respectively; Kd values of 5 and 1 μM were observed for the interactions of isolated RRM3 with poly(A) and Paip2A, respectively. NMR analyses also revealed that Paip2A can bind to the poly(A)binding interfaces of the RRM2 and RRM3 regions of PABPC1. Based on these results, we propose the following functional mechanism for Paip2A: Paip2A initially binds to the RRM2 region of poly(A)-bound PABPC1, and RRM2-anchored Paip2A effectively displaces the RRM3 region from poly(A), resulting in dissociation of the whole PABPC1 molecule. Together, our findings provide insight into the translation repression effect of Paip2A and may aid in the development of novel anticancer and/or antiviral drugs.

Chemical exchange processes of proteins on the order of microseconds (μs) to milliseconds (ms) play critical roles in biological functions. Developments in methyl-transverse relaxation optimized spectroscopy (methyl-TROSY), which observes the slowly relaxing multiple quantum (MQ) coherences, have enabled the studies of biologically important large proteins. However, the analyses of μs to ms chemical exchange processes based on the methyl-TROSY principle are still challenging, because the interpretation of the chemical exchange contributions to the MQ relaxation profiles is complicated, as significant chemical shift differences occur in both 1H and 13C nuclei. Here, we report a new methyl-based NMR method for characterizing chemical exchanges, utilizing differential MQ relaxation rates and a heteronuclear double resonance pulse technique. The method enables quantitative evaluations of the chemical exchange processes, in which significant chemical shift differences exist in both the 1H and 13C nuclei. The versatility of the method is demonstrated with the application to KirBac1.1, with an apparent molecular mass of 200 kDa.

DREAM (calsenilin/KChIP3) is an EF-hand calcium-binding protein that represses transcription of prodynorphin and c-fos genes. Here we present structural and binding studies on single-site mutants of DREAM designed to disable Ca(2+) binding to each of the functional EF-hands (EF-2: D150N; EF-3: E186Q; and EF-4: E234Q). Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) analysis of Ca(2+) binding to the various mutants revealed that, in the absence of Mg(2+), Ca(2+) binds independently and sequentially to EF-3 (DeltaH = -2.4 kcal/mol), EF-4 (DeltaH = +5.2 kcal/mol), and EF-2 (DeltaH = +1 kcal/mol). By contrast, only two Ca(2+) bind to DREAM in the presence of physiological levels of Mg(2+) for both wild-type and D150N, suggesting that EF-2 binds constitutively to Mg(2+). ITC measurements demonstrate that one Mg(2+) binds enthalpically with high affinity (K(d) = 13 mum and DeltaH = -0.79 kcal/mol) and two or more Mg(2+) bind entropically in the millimolar range. Size-exclusion chromatography studies revealed that Mg(2+) stabilizes DREAM as a monomer, whereas Ca(2+) induces protein dimerization. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays indicated that Mg(2+) is essential for sequence-specific binding of DREAM to DNA response elements (DREs) in prodynorphin and c-fos genes. The EF-hand mutants bind specifically to DRE, suggesting they are functionally intact. None of the EF-hand mutants bind DRE at saturating Ca(2+) levels, suggesting that binding of a single Ca(2+) at either EF-3 or EF-4 is sufficient to drive conformational changes that abolish DNA binding. NMR structural analysis indicates that metal-free DREAM adopts a folded yet flexible molten globule-like structure. Both Ca(2+) and Mg(2+) induce distinct conformational changes, which stabilize tertiary structure of DREAM. We propose that Mg(2+) binding at EF-2 may structurally bridge DREAM to DNA targets and that Ca(2+)-induced protein dimerization disrupts DNA binding.

Frq1, a 190-residue N-myristoylated calcium-binding protein, associates tightly with the N terminus of Pik1, a 1066-residue phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase. Deletion analysis of an Frq1-binding fragment, Pik1-(10-192), showed that residues within 80-192 are necessary and sufficient for Frq1 association in vitro. A synthetic peptide (residues 151-199) competed for binding of [(35)S]Pik1-(10-192) to bead-immobilized Frq1, whereas shorter peptides (164-199 and 174-199) did not. Correspondingly, a deletion mutant, Pik1(delta152-191), did not co-immunoprecipitate efficiently with Frq1 and did not support growth at elevated temperature. Site-directed mutagenesis of Pik1-(10-192) suggested that recognition determinants lie over an extended region. Titration calorimetry demonstrated that binding of an 83-residue fragment, Pik1-(110-192), or the 151-199 peptide to Frq1 shows high affinity (K(d) approximately 100 nm) and is largely entropic, consistent with hydrophobic interaction. Stoichiometry of Pik1-(110-192) binding to Frq1 was 1:1, as judged by titration calorimetry, by changes in NMR spectrum and intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence, and by light scattering. In cell extracts, Pik1 and Frq1 exist mainly in a heterodimeric complex, as shown by size exclusion chromatography. Cys-15 in Frq1 is not S-palmitoylated, as assessed by mass spectrometry; a Frq1(C15A) mutant and even a non-myristoylated Frq1(G2A,C15A) double mutant rescued the inviability of frq1Delta cells. This study defines the segment of Pik1 required for high affinity binding of Frq1.

The superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity of iron(II) tetrakis-N,N,N',N'(2-pyridylmethyl)ethylenediamine complex (Fe-TPEN) was reexamined using a pulse radiolysis method. In our previous study (J. Biol. Chem., 264, 9243-9249 (1989)), we reported that this complex has a potent SOD activity in a cyt, c (cytochrome c)-based system (IC50=0.8 mu M) and protects E. coli cells against paraquat toxicity. The present pulse radiolysis experiment revealed that Fe(II)TPEN reacts stoichiometrically with superoxide to form Fe(III)TPEN with a second-order rate constant of 3.9 x 10(6) M-1 s(-1) at pH 7.1, but superoxide did not reduce Fe(III)TPEN to Fe(II)TPEN. The reaction of Fe(III)TPEN and superoxide was biphasic, In the fast reaction, an adduct (Fe(III)TPEN-superoxide complex) was formed at the second-order rate constant of 8.5 x 10(5) M-1 s(-1) at pH 7.4. In the slow one, the adduct reacted with another molecule of the adduct, regenerating Fe(III)TPEN. In the cyt, c method with catalase, this Fe(III)TPEN-superoxide complex showed cyt, c oxidation activity, which had led to overestimation of its SOD activity. Based on the titration data, the main species of complex in aqueous media at neutral pH was indicated to be Fe(III)TPEN(OH-). A spectral change after the reduction with hydrated electron indicates that the OH- ion coordinates directly to Fe(III) by displacing one of the pyridine rings. The X-ray analysis of [Fe(II)TPEN]SO4 supported this structure. From the above results we propose a novel reaction mechanism of FeTPEN and superoxide which resembles a proton catalyzed dismuting process, involving Fe(III)TPEN-superoxide complex.

In eukaryotes, shortening of the 3'-poly(A) tail is the rate-limiting step in the degradation of most mRNAs, and two major mRNA deadenylase complexes--Caf1-Ccr4 and Pan2-Pan3--play central roles in this process, referred to as deadenylation. However, the molecular mechanism triggering deadenylation remains elusive. Previously, we demonstrated that eukaryotic releasing factor eRF3 mediates deadenylation and decay of mRNA in a manner coupled to translation termination. Here, we report the mechanism of mRNA deadenylation. The eRF3-mediated deadenylation is catalyzed by both Caf1-Ccr4 and Pan2-Pan3. Interestingly, translation termination complexes eRF1-eRF3, Pan2-Pan3, and Caf1-Ccr4 competitively interact with polyadenylate-binding protein PABPC1. In each complex, eRF3, Pan3, and Tob, respectively, mediate PABPC1 binding, and a combination of a PAM2 motif and a PABC domain is commonly utilized for their contacts. A translation-dependent exchange of eRF1-eRF3 for the deadenylase occurs on PABPC1. Consequently, PABPC1 binding leads to the activation of Pan2-Pan3 and Caf1-Ccr4. From these results, we suggest a mechanism of mRNA deadenylation by Pan2-Pan3 and Caf1-Ccr4 in cooperation with eRF3 and PABPC1.

Intracellular nickel is required by Escherichia coli as a cofactor for a number of enzymes and is necessary for anaerobic respiration. However, high concentrations of nickel are toxic, so both import and export systems have evolved to control the cellular level of the metal. The nik operon in E. coli encodes a nickel-uptake system that includes the periplasmic nickel-binding protein NikA. The crystal structures of wild-type NikA both bound to nickel and in the apo form have been solved previously. The liganded structure appeared to show an unusual interaction between the nickel and the protein in which no direct bonds are formed. The highly unusual nickel coordination suggested by the crystal structure contrasted strongly with earlier X-ray spectroscopic studies. The known nickel-binding site has been probed by extensive mutagenesis and isothermal titration calorimetry and it has been found that even large numbers of disruptive mutations appear to have little effect on the nickel affinity. The crystal structure of a binding-site mutant with nickel bound has been solved and it is found that nickel is bound to two histidine residues at a position distant from the previously characterized binding site. This novel site immediately resolves the conflict between the crystal structures and other biophysical analyses. The physiological relevance of the two binding sites is discussed.

Small-angle X-ray scattering and nuclear magnetic resonance were used to investigate the structural change of calcium-bound calmodulin (Ca2+/CaM) in solution upon binding to its antagonist, N-(6-aminohexyl)-5-chloro-1-naphthalenesulfonamide (W-7). The radius of gyration was 17.4+/-0.3 A for Ca2+/CaM-W-7 with a molar ratio of 1:5 and 20.3+/-0.7 A for Ca2+/CaM. Comparison of the radius of gyration and the pair distance distribution function of the Ca2+/CaM-W-7 complex with those of other complexes indicates that binding of two W-7 molecules induces a globular shape for Ca2+/CaM, probably caused by an inter-domain compaction. The results suggest a tendency for Ca2+/CaM to form a globular structure in solution, which is inducible by a small compound like W-7.

Calsenilin/DREAM/KChIP3, a member of the recoverin branch of the EF-hand superfamily, interacts with presenilins, serves as a calcium-regulated transcriptional repressor, and interacts with A-type potassium channels. Here we report physicochemical characterization of calcium binding, oligomerization, and DNA binding of human calsenilin/DREAM/KChIP3. Equilibrium Ca(2+) binding measurements indicate that the protein binds 3 Ca(2+) with a dissociation constant of 14 microM and a Hill coefficient of 0.7. Dynamic light scattering and size exclusion chromatography show that the Ca(2+)-bound protein exists as a dimer at protein concentrations lower than 150 microM and forms a tetramer at concentrations above 200 microM. The Ca(2+)-free protein is a tetramer in the concentration range 20-450 microM. Isothermal titration calorimetry and dynamic light scattering indicate that the Ca(2+)-free protein tetramer binds endothermically (DeltaH = +25 kcal/mol) to four molecules of DNA derived from the downstream regulatory element (DRE) of either the prodynorphin or c-fos genes. One DRE molecule binds tightly to the protein with a dissociation constant (K(d)) of 75 nM, and the other three bind more

Voltage-dependent potassium (Kv) channels allow for the selective permeability of potassium ions in a membrane potential dependent manner, playing crucial roles in neurotransmission and muscle contraction. Kv channel is a tetramer, in which each subunit possesses a voltage-sensing domain (VSD) and a pore domain (PD). Although several lines of evidence indicated that membrane depolarization is sensed as the movement of helix S4 of the VSD, the detailed voltage-sensing mechanism remained elusive, due to the difficulty of structural analyses at resting potential. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive disulfide locking analysis of the VSD using 36 double Cys mutants, in order to identify the proximal residue pairs of the VSD in the presence or absence of a membrane potential. An intramolecular SS-bond was formed between 6 Cys pairs under both polarized and depolarized environment, and one pair only under depolarized environment. The multiple conformations captured by the SS-bond can be divided by two states, up and down, where S4 lies on the extracellular and intracellular sides of the membrane, respectively, with axial rotation of 180 degrees. The transition between these two states is caused by the S4 translocation of 12 angstrom, enabling allosteric regulation of the gating at the PD.

The calcium (Ca(2+)) ion is a universal signalling messenger which plays vital physiological roles in all eukaryotes. To decode highly regulated intracellular Ca(2+) signals, cells have evolved a number of sensor proteins that are ideally adapted to respond to a specific range of Ca(2+) levels. Among many such proteins, calmodulin (CaM) is a multi-functional cytoplasmic Ca(2+) sensor with a remarkable ability to interact with and regulate a plethora of structurally diverse target proteins. CaM achieves this 'multi-talented' functionality through two EF-hand domains, each with an independent capacity to bind targets, and an adaptable flexible linker. By contrast, stromal interaction molecule-1 and -2 (STIMs) have evolved for a specific role in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca(2+) sensing using EF-hand machinery analogous to CaM; however, whereas CaM structurally adjusts to dissimilar binding partners, STIMs use the EF-hand machinery to self-regulate the stability of the Ca(2+) sensing domain. The molecular mechanisms underlying the Ca(2+)-dependent signal transduction by CaM and STIMs have revealed a remarkable repertoire of actions and underscore the flexibility of nature in molecular evolution and adaption to discrete Ca(2+) levels. Recent genomic sequencing efforts have uncovered a number of disease-associated mutations in both CaM and STIM1. This article aims to highlight the most recent key structural and functional findings in the CaM and STIM fields, and discusses how these two Ca(2+) sensor proteins execute their biological functions.

Fragment-based screening using 19F NMR (19F-FS) is an efficient method for exploring seed and lead compounds for drug discovery. Here, we demonstrate the utility and merits of using 19F-FS for methionine γ-lyase-binding fragments, together with a 19F NMR-based competition and mutation assay, as well as enzymatic and in silico methods. 19F NMR-based assays provided useful information on binding between 19F-FS hit fragments and target proteins. Although the 19F-FS and enzymatic assay were weakly correlated, they show that the 19F-FS hit fragments contained compounds with inhibitory activity. Furthermore, we found that in silico calculations partially account for the differences in activity levels between the 19F-FS hits as per NMR analysis. A comprehensive approach combining the 19F-FS and other methods not only identified fragment hits but also distinguished structural differences in chemical groups with diverse activity levels.

The structure of calcium-bound calmodulin (Ca2+/CaM) complexed with a 26-residue peptide, corresponding to the CaM-binding domain of rat Ca2+/CaM-dependent protein kinase kinase (CaMKK), has been determined by NMR spectroscopy. In this complex, the CaMKK peptide forms a fold comprising an alpha-helix and a hairpin-like loop whose C-terminus folds back on itself. The binding orientation of this CaMKK peptide by the two CaM domains is opposite to that observed in all other CaM-target complexes determined so far. The N- and C-terminal hydrophobic pockets of Ca2+/CaM anchor Trp 444 and Phe 459 of the CaMKK peptide, respectively. This 14-residue separation between two key hydrophobic groups is also unique among previously determined CaM complexes. The present structure represents a new and distinct class of Ca2+/CaM target recognition that may be shared by other Ca2+/CaM-stimulated proteins.

Magnesium is an essential ion for numerous physiological processes. MgtE is a Mg2+ selective channel involved in the maintenance of intracellular Mg2+ homeostasis, whose gating is regulated by intracellular Mg2+ levels. Here, we report that ATP binds to MgtE, regulating its Mg2+-dependent gating. Crystal structures of MgtE-ATP complex show that ATP binds to the intracellular CBS domain of MgtE. Functional studies support that ATP binding to MgtE enhances the intracellular domain affinity for Mg2+ within physiological concentrations of this divalent cation, enabling MgtE to function as an in vivo Mg2+ sensor. ATP dissociation from MgtE upregulates Mg2+ influx at both high and low intracellular Mg2+ concentrations. Using site-directed mutagenesis and structure based-electrophysiological and biochemical analyses, we identify key residues and main structural changes involved in the process. This work provides the molecular basis of ATP-dependent modulation of MgtE in Mg2+ homeostasis.

We combined a library of medium-sized molecules with iterative screening using multiple machine learning algorithms that were ligand-based, which resulted in a large increase of the hit rate against a protein-protein interaction target. This was demonstrated by inhibition assays using a PPI target, Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1/nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Keap1/Nrf2), and a deep neural network model based on the first-round assay data showed a highest hit rate of 27.3%. Using the models, we identified novel active and non-flat compounds far from public datasets, expanding the chemical space.