論文

The soil bacterium Bacillus subtilis forms dormant, robust spores as a tactic to ensure survival under conditions of starvation. However, the sporulating culture includes sporulating and non-sporulating cells, because a portion of the cell population initiates sporulation in wild-type strain. We anticipated that the population effect must be considered carefully to analyse samples yielding population heterogeneity. We first built a mathematical model and simulated for signal transduction of the sporulation cue to see what mechanisms are responsible for generating the heterogeneity. The simulated results were confirmed experimentally, where heterogeneity is primarily modulated by negative feedback circuits, resulting in generation of a bistable response within the sporulating culture. We also confirmed that mutants relevant to negative feedback yield either sporulating or non-sporulating subpopulations. To see the effect of molecular mechanism between sporulating and non-sporulating cells in distinct manner, metabolome analysis was conducted using the above mutants. The metabolic profiles exhibited distinct characteristics with time regardless of whether sporulation was initiated or not. In addition, several distinct characteristics of metabolites were observed between strains, which was inconsistent with previously reported data. The results imply that careful consideration must be made in the interpretation of data obtained from cells yielding population heterogeneity. © 2007 The Japanese Biochemical Society.

A computational analysis of the nuclear genome of a red alga, Cyanidioschyzon merolae, identified 11 transfer RNA (tRNA) genes in which the 3′ half of the tRNA lies upstream of the 5′ half in the genome. We verified that these genes are expressed and produce mature tRNAs that are aminoacylated. Analysis of tRNA-processing intermediates for these genes indicates an unusual processing pathway in which the termini of the tRNA precursor are ligated, resulting in formation of a characteristic circular RNA intermediate that is then processed at the acceptor stem to generate the correct termini.

We have fabricated a coaxial sheath liquid flow microelectrospray ionization (μESI) interface for capillary electrophoresis coupled with mass spectrometry (CE/MS). The ESI interface, which features a reduced probe diameter (130 μm i.d. x 174 μm o.d.) with a nebulizer-free format, can relatively easily electrospray a large amount of make-up sheath liquid (5-10 μL/min) over the long term (more than 80 runs) with a high degree of stability. The interface also provides higher separation qualities and improved detection sensitivities compared with a conventional ion spray (IS) interface. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Objective: Cell motility and chemotaxis play a role in the virulence of pathogenic bacteria, such as escape from host immune responses. Escherichia coli chemotaxis provides a well-characterized model system for the bacterial chemotaxis network. Two features of E. coli chemotaxis include signal amplification and robustly accurate adaptation. Recent simulation studies with models considering the effects of other receptors have suggested possible mechanisms for signal amplification. Although precise adaptation to aspartate has been explained by conventional kinetic models, the adaptation behavior of models incorporating the effects of other receptors remains unclear. Methods: We concentrated on how receptor crosstalk affects minimization of adaptation error and compared models in which the contribution of other receptors varied. Results: We demonstrated that the model is adaptable to attractant concentrations ranging from 0.1μ M to 10 mM with a decreased error rate (from 8% to 2%) when the kinetic constant of CheA and phosphorylated CheY dissociation is increased. Conclusion: The results suggest that accurate adaptation is maintained through control of both the interaction of cytoplasmic Che proteins and the activity of the receptor complex. © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Circular bacterial chromosomes have highly polarized nucleotide composition in the two replichores, and this genomic strand asymmetry can be visualized using GC skew graphs. Here we propose and discuss the GC skew index (GCSI) for the quantifi cation of genomic compositional skew, which combines a normalized measure of fast Fourier transform to capture the shape of the skew graph and Euclidean distance between the two vertices in a cumulative skew graph to represent the degree of skew. We calculated GCSI for all available bacterial genomes, and GCSI correlated well with the visibility of GC skew. This novel index is useful for estimating confi dence levels for the prediction of replication origin and terminus by methods based on GC skew and for measuring the strength of replicational selection in a genome.

Recent large-scale transcriptomic analyses have identified numerous endogenously encoded cis-antisense RNAs that are thought to play important roles in diverse cellular processes although comprehensive comparative studies among multiple species have yet to be performed. To investigate conserved genomic features across various species that may be related to sense-antisense regulation, we performed comparative analysis of approximately 1000-2000 cis-encoded antisense RNA pairs from five model eukaryotes (Homo sapiens, Mus musculus, Drosophila melanogaster, Arabidopsis thaliana, and Oryza sativa). Analysis of overlapping patterns relative to the exon-intron structure revealed that the number of pairs sharing the 3′ part of the transcripts was larger than that of the 5′-sharing pairs except in rice. Moreover, most of the well-conserved sense-antisense pairs between human and mouse exhibited 3′-overlaps, suggesting that regulatory mechanisms involving these regions may be important in sense-antisense transcription. Functional classification using Gene Ontology revealed that genes related to catalytic activity, nucleotide binding, DNA metabolism, and mitochondria were preferentially distributed within the set of exon-overlapping sense-antisense genes compared to the non-exon-overlapping group in animals. Despite the numerous sense-antisense pairs identified in human and mouse individually, the number of conserved pairs was extremely small (6.6% of the entire set). Whereas both genes of most of the conserved sense-antisense pairs had protein-coding potential, nearly half of the non-conserved pairs included a non-coding RNA, suggesting that non-coding sense-antisense RNAs may function in species-specific regulatory pathways. © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Parameters often are tuned with metabolite concentration time series data to build a dynamic model of metabolism. However, such tuning may reduce the extrapolation ability (generalization capability) of the model. In this study, we determined detailed kinetic parameters of three purified Escherichia coli glycolytic enzymes using the initial velocity method for individual enzymes; i.e., the parameters were determined independently from metabolite concentration time series data. The metabolite concentration time series calculated by the model using the parameters matched the experimental data obtained in an actual multi-enzyme system consisting of the three purified E. coli glycolytic enzymes. Thus, the results indicate that kinetic parameters can be determined without using an undesirable tuning process. © 2007 Federation of European Biochemical Societies.

The practical realization of DNA data storage is a major scientific goal. Here we introduce a simple, flexible, and robust data storage and retrieval method based on sequence alignment of the genomic DNA of living organisms. Duplicated data encoded by different oligonucleotide sequences was inserted redundantly into multiple loci of the Bacillus subtilis genome. Multiple alignment of the bit data sequences decoded by B. subtilis genome sequences enabled the retrieval of stable and compact data without the need for template DNA, parity checks, or error-correcting algorithms. Combined with the computational simulation of data retrieval from mutated message DNA, a practical use of this alignment-based method is discussed. © 2007 American Chemical Society and American Institute of Chemical Engineers.

Background: Density plot visualizations (also referred to as heat maps or color maps) are widely used in different fields including large-scale omics studies in biological sciences. However, the current color-codings limit the visualizations to single datasets or pairwise comparisons. Results: We propose a color-coding approach for the representation of three-way comparisons. The approach is based on the HSB (hue, saturation, brightness) color model. The three compared values are assigned specific hue values from the circular hue range (e.g. red, green, and blue). The hue value representing the three-way comparison is calculated according to the distribution of three compared values. If two of the values are identical and one is different, the resulting hue is set to the characteristic hue of the differing value. If all three compared values are different, the resulting hue is selected from a color gradient running between the hues of the two most distant values (as measured by the absolute value of their difference) according to the relative position of the third value between the two. The saturation of the color representing the three-way comparison reflects the amplitude (or extent) of the numerical difference between the two most distant values according to a scale of interest. The brightness is set to a maximum value by default but can be used to encode additional information about the three-way comparison. Conclusion: We propose a novel color-coding approach for intuitive visualization of three-way comparisons of omics data. © 2007 Baran et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

For analyzing the control of energy metabolism in Escherichia coli, we carried out kinetic analyses of glycolytic enzymes purified from the overexpressing clones of E. coli K12 W3110 that were constructed with the vector pCA24N. Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) acted as an effective inhibitor of enzymes of the preparatory phase in glycolysis. Glucokinase was potently inhibited by PEP in a competitive manner with respect to ATP: the Ki value for PEP was 0.1 mM. PEP further inhibited phosphoglucoisomerase to a lesser extent, and phosphofructokinase A and aldolase A with 10-fold the Ki values of glucokinase and phosphoglucoisomerase. Glucose is incorporated into E. coli through two pathways: the PTS (PEP-dependent phosphotransferase system) and the glucokinase reaction. PEP, a potent inhibitor of E. coli glucokinase, unlike most eukaryotic hexokinases, can act as a signal molecule controlling glucose uptake and glycolytic flux in cells. © 2006 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

In archaeal species, several transfer RNA genes have been reported to contain endogenous introns. Although most of the introns are located at anticodon loop regions between nucleotide positions 37 and 38, a number of introns at noncanonical sites and six cases of tRNA genes containing two introns have also been documented. However, these tRNA genes are often missed by tRNAscan-SE, the software most widely used for the annotation of tRNA genes. We previously developed SPLITS, a computational tool to identify tRNA genes containing one intron at a noncanonical position on the basis of its discriminative splicing motif, but the software was limited in the detection of tRNA genes with multiple introns at noncanonical sites. In this study, we initially updated the system as SPLITSX in order to correctly predict known tRNA genes as well as novel ones with multiple introns. By a comprehensive search for tRNA genes in 29 archaeal genomes using SPLITSX, we listed 43 novel candidates that contain introns at noncanonical sites. As a result, 15 contained two introns and three contained three introns within the respective putative tRNA genes. Moreover, the candidates completely complemented all the codons of two archaeal species of uncultured methanogenic archaeon, RC-I and Thermofilum pendens Hrk 5, with novel candidates that were not detectable by tRNAscan-SE alone. Published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. Copyright © 2007 RNA Society.

Bacterial chromosomes are partly shaped by the functional requirements for effi cient replication, which lead to strand bias as commonly characterized by the excess of guanines over cytosines in the leading strand. Gene structures are also highly organized within bacterial genomes as a result of such functional constraints, displaying characteristic positioning and structuring along the genome. Here we analyze the gene structures in completely sequenced bacterial chromosomes to observe the positional constraints on gene orientation, length, and codon usage with regard to the positions of replication origin and terminus. Selection on these gene features is different in regions surrounding the terminus of replication from the rest of the genome, but the selection could be either positive or negative depending on the species, and these positional effects are partly attributed to the A-T enrichment near the terminus. Characteristic gene structuring relative to the position of replication origin and terminus is commonly observed among most bacterial species with circular chromosomes, and therefore we argue that the highly organized gene positioning as well as the strand bias should be considered for genomics studies of bacteria.

Analysis and visualization of biological networks, such as protein-protein and protein-DNA interactions, are crucially important toward obtaining a thorough understanding of living systems. Here, we present an integrative software platform, eXpanda, which enables an analysis of a very broad range of biological networks, with a special focus on the extraction of characteristic topologies which potentially function as units in the networks. eXpanda is provided as a Perl library which gives full-automatic connections to various biological databases via a Perl programmable interface and can perform topological analysis based on graph theory. The results of these analyses are visualizable by vector graphics. eXpanda is under GNU General Public License. Software package, detailed documentations, source codes, and some sample scripts are downloadable at http://medcd.iab.keio.ac.jp/expanda/. © 2007 IOS Press. All rights reserved.

Although the machinery for translation initiation in Escherichia coli is very complicated, the translational efficiency has been reported to be predictable from upstream oligonucleotide sequences. Conventional models have difficulties in their generalization ability and prediction nonlinearity and in their ability to deal with a variety of input attributions. To address these issues, we employed structural learning by artificial neural networks to infer general rules for translational efficiency. The correlation between translational activities measured by biological experiments and those predicted by our method in the test data was significant (r = 0.78), and our method uncovered underlying rules of translational activities and sequence patterns from the obtained skeleton structure. The significant rules for predicting translational efficiency were (1) G- and A-rich oligonucleotide sequences, resembling the Shine-Dalgarno sequence, at positions -10 to -7; (2) first base A in the initiation codon; (3) transport/binding or amino acid metabolism gene function; (4) high binding energy between mRNA and 16S rRNA at positions -15 to -5. An additional inferred novel rule was that C at position -1 increases translational efficiency. When our model was applied to the entire genomic sequence of E. coli, translational activities of genes for metabolism and translational were significantly high. © 2006 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

The structural architecture of proteins continues to be an area of active research. Despite the difference in models dealing with the way proteins fold into their tertiary structures, it is recognized that small regions of proteins tend to fold independently and are then stabilized by interactions between these distinct subunits. However, there are a number of different definitions of what comprises an independent subunit. In the belief that an unequivocal definition of a domain must be based on the most fundamental property of protein 3D structure, namely, the adjacency matrix of inter-residues contact, we adopt a network representation of the protein. In this work, we used a well-established, global method for identifying modules in networks, without any specific reference to the kind of network being analyzed. The algorithm converges toward the maximization of the modularity of the given protein network and, in doing so, allows the representation of the residues of the protein in terms of their intramodule degree, z, and participation coefficient, P. We demonstrate that the labeling of residues in terms of these invariants allows for information-rich representations of the studied proteins as well as to sketch a new way to link sequence, structure, and the dynamical properties of proteins. We discovered a strong invariant character of protein molecules in terms of P/z characterization, pointing to a common topological design of all protein structures. This invariant representation, applied to different protein systems, enabled us to identify the possible functional role of high P/z residues during the folding process. Additionally, we observe a hierarchical behavior of protein structural organization that provides a sequence-secondary-tertiary structure link. The discovery of similar and repeatable scaling laws at different level of definitions going from hydrophobicity patterning along the sequence up to the size of an autonomous folding unit (AFU) and general contact distribution of the entire molecule suggest a hierarchical-like behavior of protein architecture. This implies the possibility to select different privileged scales of observation for deriving useful information on protein systems. © 2007 American Chemical Society.

Analysis of cellular components at multiple levels of biological information can provide valuable functional insights. We performed multiple high-throughput measurements to study the response of Escherichia coli cells to genetic and environmental perturbations. Analysis of metabolic enzyme gene disruptants revealed unexpectedly small changes in messenger RNA and proteins for most disruptants. Overall, metabolite levels were also stable, reflecting the rerouting of fluxes in the metabolic network. In contrast, E. coli actively regulated enzyme levels to maintain a stable metabolic state in response to changes in growth rate. E. coli thus seems to use complementary strategies that result in a metabolic network robust against perturbations.

We developed novel methods for phosphopeptide enrichment using aliphatic hydroxy acid-modified metal oxide chromatography (MOC). Titania and zirconia were successfully applied to enrich phosphopeptides with the aid of aliphatic hydroxy acids, such as lactic acid and β-hydroxypropanoic acid, to reduce the interaction between acidic non-phosphopeptides and the metal oxides. These methods removed the vast majority of non-phosphopeptides from phosphoprotein standard digests, and large numbers of phosphopeptides could be readily identified. The methods were coupled with nano-LC-MS/MS systems without difficulty. Recovery of phosphopeptides in MOC varied greatly from peptide to peptide, ranging from a few percent to 100%, and the average was almost 50%. Repeatability and linearity were satisfactory. In an examination of the cytoplasmic fraction of HeLa cells, more than 1000 phosphopeptides were identified using lactic acid-modified titania MOC and β-hydroxypropanoic acid-modified zirconia MOC, respectively. The overlap between phosphopeptides enriched by these two methods was 40%, and the combined results provided 1646 unique phosphopeptides. To our knowledge, this is the first successful application of a single MOC-based approach to phosphopeptide enrichment from complex biological samples such as cell lysates. © 2007 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.

An easy-to-implement capillary coating strategy based on polymer entrapment in the network of polymerized silicate is described. In this manner, cationic polymers are tightiy fixed onto the inner wall of the capillary for electroosmotic flow control without necessitating complex surface modification chemistries. The resulting coated capillary exhibited good stability over a wide range of pH, good reproducibility, strong endurance in more than 300 electrophoretic runs, and tolerance of commonly employed organic solvent additives in CE. Applications in CE-MS analysis of biologically important anions as well as sample enrichment are shown. Additionally, it was used as a durable base for attachment of multiple layers of charged polymers on the wall, via electrostatic interaction with the preceding layer. Thus, two novel types of highly stable coated capillaries, one with anodic EOF and the other cathodic, were developed. © 2007 American Chemical Society.

Recent studies have proposed the interesting perspective that viral gene expression is downregulated by host microRNAs (miRNAs), small non-coding RNAs well known as post-transcriptional gene regulators. We computationally predicted human miRNA target sites within 228 human-infecting and 348 invertebrate-infecting virus genomes, and we observed that human-infecting viruses were more likely than invertebrate-infecting ones to be targeted by human miRNAs. We listed 62 possible human miRNA-targeted viruses from 6 families, most of which consisted of single-stranded RNA viruses. These results suggest that miRNAs extensively mediate antiviral defenses in humans. © 2007 Federation of European Biochemical Societies.