論文

We used FM imaging to identify neurons that receive sensory feedback from the body wall in a circuit for octopamine (OA)-evoked rhythmic locomotion in the earthworm, Eisenia fetida. We visualized synapses in which postsynaptic neurons receive the sensory feedback, by using FM1-43 dye to label the synapses of both motor and sensory pathways that are associated with locomotion, then clearing the motor pathway synapse labeling, and finally identifying the target synapses by distinguishing physiologically functional synapses through destaining using a high-K+ solution. A pair of synaptic regions associated with the sensory feedback was found to be located two or three cell body-widths away from the midline, between the anterior parts of the roots of the second lateral nerves (LNs) at the segmental ganglia (SGs). Using conventional intracellular recording and dye loading of the cell bodies surrounding these synaptic regions, we identified a pair of bilateral neurons with cell bodies larger than those of other cells in these regions, and named them "Oscillatory firing neurons Projecting to Peripheral nerves" (OPPs). These had a bipolar shape and projected neurites to the ipsilateral first and third LNs, fired rhythmically, and had a burst timing synchronized with the motor pattern bursts from the ipsilateral first LNs. Current injection into an OPP caused firing in the ipsilateral first LNs, supporting the hypothesis that OPPs functionally project to the peripheral nerves. OPPs also sent neurites to the adjacent anterior and posterior SGs, suggesting connections with the adjacent segments. We conclude that FM imaging can be used to identify neurons involved in specific functions, and that OPPs are the first neurons to be associated with OA-induced locomotion in the earthworm. © 2014 .

Ontologies provide an important resource to integrate information. For developmental biology and comparative anatomy studies, ontologies of a species are used to formalize and annotate data that are related to anatomical structures, their lineage and timing of development. Here, we have constructed the first ontology for anatomy and asexual development (blastogenesis) of a bilaterian, the colonial tunicate Botryllus schlosseri. Tunicates, like Botryllus schlosseri, are non-vertebrates and the only chordate taxon species that reproduce both sexually and asexually. Their tadpole larval stage possesses structures characteristic of all chordates, i.e. a notochord, a dorsal neural tube, and gill slits. Larvae settle and metamorphose into individuals that are either solitary or colonial. The latter reproduce both sexually and asexually and these two reproductive modes lead to essentially the same adult body plan. The Botryllus schlosseri Ontology of Development and Anatomy (BODA) will facilitate the comparison between both types of development. BODA uses the rules defined by the Open Biomedical Ontologies Foundry. It is based on studies that investigate the anatomy, blastogenesis and regeneration of this organism. BODA features allow the users to easily search and identify anatomical structures in the colony, to define the developmental stage, and to follow the morphogenetic events of a tissue and/or organ of interest throughout asexual development. We invite the scientific community to use this resource as a reference for the anatomy and developmental ontology of B. schlosseri and encourage recommendations for updates and improvements. © 2014 Manni et al.

Although the magnesium ion (Mg2+) is one of the most abundant divalent cations in cells and is known to play critical roles in many physiological processes, its mobilization and underlying mechanisms are still unknown. Here, we describe a novel fluorescent Mg2+ probe, "KMG-104-AsH", composed of a highly selective fluorescent Mg 2+ probe, "KMG-104", and a fluorescence-recoverable probe, "FlAsH", bound specifically to a tetracysteine peptide tag (TCtag), which can be genetically incorporated into any protein. This probe was developed for molecular imaging of local changes in intracellular Mg2+ concentration. KMG-104-AsH was synthesized, and its optical properties were investigated in solution. The fluorescence intensity of KMG-104-AsH (at λem/max = 540 nm) increases by more than 10-fold by binding to both the TCtag peptide and Mg2+, and the probe is highly selective for Mg2+ (Kd/Mg = 1.7 mM, Kd/Ca 100 mM). Application of the probe for imaging of Mg2+ in HeLa cells showed that this FlAsH-type Mg2+ sensing probe is membrane-permeable and binds specifically to tagged proteins, such as TCtag-actin and mKeima-TCtag targeted to the cytoplasm and the mitochondrial intermembrane space. KMG-104-AsH bound to TCtag responded to an increase in intracellular Mg2+ concentration caused by the release of Mg2+ from mitochondria induced by FCCP, a protonophore that eliminates the inner membrane potential of mitochondria. This probe is expected to be a strong tool for elucidating the dynamics and mechanisms of intracellular localization of Mg2+. © 2014 American Chemical Society.

Axon guidance involves multiple second messenger signal transduction pathways. Although each signal transduction pathway has been characterized, only a few studies have examined crosstalk between these cascades. Here, we applied a simultaneous second messenger imaging method to the growth cone and demonstrated correlations between cAMP, cGMP, and Ca 2+. The levels of cAMP and cGMP in non-stimulated freely extending growth cones showed a negative correlation without delay. Although there was no direct correlation between cAMP and Ca 2+, examination of cross correlations using small time windows showed frequent switching behavior from negative to positive and vice versa. Furthermore, spatially asymmetric cAMP and cGMP signals in freely deviating growth cones were visualized directly. These results indicate that we succeed in relating second messenger crosstalk to growth cone deviation and extension, and also indicate the possibility of predicting axon guidance from this second messenger crosstalk.

Specific neuron ablation with laser microbeam has been used in behavioral analysis of Caenorhabditis elegans. However, this method is hard to acquire many ablated worms, and is unable to compare behavioral changes just before and after ablation. Here, we developed an ablation method by using genetically encoded photosensitizer protein, KillerRed, which produces reactive oxygen species by green light irradiation. Ablation of AWA sensory neurons abolished the chemotaxis to AWA specific sensitive attractant, diacetyl, and no functional effect on the other sensory neuron, AWC, which senses benzaldehyde. This ablation method can be useful for analyzing neural in situ. © 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd.

Intracellular composition and the distribution of bio-molecules play central roles in the specification of cell fates and morphogenesis during embryogenesis. Consequently, investigation of changes in the expression and distribution of bio-molecules, especially mRNAs and proteins, is an important challenge in developmental biology. Raman spectroscopic imaging, a non-invasive and label-free technique, allows simultaneous imaging of the intracellular composition and distribution of multiple bio-molecules. In this study, we explored the application of Raman spectroscopic imaging in the whole Ciona intestinalis embryo during development. Analysis of Raman spectra scattered from C. intestinalis embryos revealed a number of localized patterns of high Raman intensity within the embryo. Based on the observed distribution of bio-molecules, we succeeded in identifying the location and structure of differentiated muscle and endoderm within the whole embryo, up to the tailbud stage, in a label-free manner. Furthermore, during cell differentiation, we detected significant differences in cell state between muscle/endoderm daughter cells and daughter cells with other fates that had divided from the same mother cells; this was achieved by focusing on the Raman intensity of single Raman bands at 1002 or 1526 cm-1, respectively. This study reports the first application of Raman spectroscopic imaging to the study of identifying and characterizing differentiating tissues in a whole chordate embryo. Our results suggest that Raman spectroscopic imaging is a feasible label-free technique for investigating the developmental process of the whole embryo of C. intestinalis. © 2013 Nakamura et al.

Intracellular Mg2+ concentration ([Mg2+]i) and NO regulate cell survival and death. To reveal the involvement of NO in intracellular Mg2+ regulation, we visualized intracellular Mg 2+ using the fluorescent Mg2+ indicator KMG-104-AM in rat hippocampal neurons. Pharmacological experiments using SNAP, 8-Br-cGMP, diazoxide and several inhibitors revealed that the NO/cGMP/Protein kinsase G (PKG) signaling pathway triggers an increase in [Mg2+]i, and that Mg2+ mobilization is due to Mg2+ release from mitochondria induced by mitoKATP channel opening. In addition, Mg2+ release is potentiated by the positive feedback loop including mitoKATP channel opening, mitochondrial depolarization and PKC activation. © 2013 Federation of European Biochemical Societies. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Although some interneurons in C. elegans have been shown to have unusual region-specific Ca2+ dynamics, the region-specific Ca2+ and membrane potential response properties of these neurons are largely unknown due to technical limitations. In this report, we focused on one of these neurons, AIY interneuron, where Ca2+ dynamics have been detected only in neurites, and not the soma, during odor and temperature stimulation to determine whether membrane potential and Ca2+ are region-specific dynamics and distinct from one another. To visualize voltage change both in the soma and neurites of AIY, we used voltage-sensitive fluorescent protein (VSFP) 2.42. First, we confirmed that the sensor protein worked correctly in C. elegans by depolarizing AIY interneuron with high concentrations of KCl. Next, we observed membrane potential depolarization during odor (isoamyl alcohol) stimulation in both neurites and the soma. Additionally, depolarization of membrane potential with direct application of high KCl induced a Ca2+ increase in the soma. From these results, we conclude that membrane potential behavior and Ca2+ dynamics in AIY differ in its subcellular regions and that VSFP2.42 can be a useful tool for studying information processing in single neurons. © 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd.

During embryogenesis, chordates pass through a tailbud stage in which the larval tail is formed. Since acquisition of a tadpole-like tail during tailbud stage is one of the key events in the evolution of chordates, understanding the anatomy of the tailbud stage chordate embryo is of special interest. In this study, to understand comprehensively the anatomy of the tailbud embryo at single-cell-level, real microscopic image stacks of the tailbud embryo in Ciona intestinalis were reconstructed into a 3D computer model. This comprehensive 3D model of the ascidian tailbud embryo was based on real images of confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM) and therefore, cell shape, location and cell arrangement reflect real geometries of the tailbud embryo. We found that the tailbud embryo consists of 1579 cells, including 836 epidermal cells, 228 cells in the central nervous system, 218 mesenchymal cells, four trunk ventral cells, two B/B*8.11 cells, 36 muscle cells, 40 notochord cells, four primordial germ cells, and 199 endodermal cells. Moreover, we identified for the first time two populations of previously undefined cells (a total of 12 cells) in Ciona: one located in the lateral trunk and the other located under the tail dorsal epidermis. This information provides a first step for understanding how the body plan of the chordate tailbud embryo formed and evolved. © 2012 Elsevier Inc.

Mg 2+ plays important roles in numerous cellular functions. Mitochondria take part in intracellular Mg 2+ regulation and the Mg 2+ concentration in mitochondria affects the synthesis of ATP. However, there are few methods to observe Mg 2+ in mitochondria in intact cells. Here, we have developed a novel Mg 2+-selective fluorescent probe, KMG-301, that is functional in mitochondria. This probe changes its fluorescence properties solely depending on the Mg 2+ concentration in mitochondria under physiologically normal conditions. Simultaneous measurements using this probe together with a probe for cytosolic Mg 2+, KMG-104, enabled us to compare the dynamics of Mg 2+ in the cytosol and in mitochondria. With this method, carbonyl cyanide p-(trifluoromethoxy) phenylhydrazone (FCCP)-induced Mg 2+ mobilization from mitochondria to the cytosol was visualized. Although a FCCP-induced decrease in the Mg 2+ concentration in mitochondria and an increase in the cytosol were observed both in differentiated PC12 cells and in hippocampal neurons, the time-courses of concentration changes varied with cell type. Moreover, the relationship between mitochondrial Mg 2+ and Parkinson's disease was analyzed in a cellular model of Parkinson's disease by using the 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion (MPP +). A gradual decrease in the Mg 2+ concentration in mitochondria was observed in response to MPP + in differentiated PC12 cells. These results indicate that KMG-301 is useful for investigating Mg 2+ dynamics in mitochondria. All animal procedures to obtain neurons from Wistar rats were approved by the ethical committee of Keio University (permit number is 09106-(1)). © 2011 Shindo et al.

Squid can rapidly change the chromatic patterns on their body. The patterns are created by the expansion and retraction of chromatophores. The chromatophore consists of a central pigment-containing cell surrounded by radial muscles that are controlled by motor neurons located in the central nervous system (CNS). In this study we used semi-intact squid (Sepioteuthis lessoniana) displaying centrally controlled natural patterns to analyze spatial and temporal activities of chromatophores located on the dorsal mantle skin. We found that chromatophores oscillated with miniature expansions/retractions at various frequencies, even when the chromatic patterns appear macroscopically stable. The frequencies of this miniature oscillation differed between "feature" and "background" areas of chromatic patterns. Higher frequencies occurred in feature areas, whereas lower frequencies were detected in background areas. We also observed synchronization of the oscillation during chromatic pattern expression. The expansion size of chromatophores oscillating at high frequency correlated with the number of synchronized chromatophores but not the oscillation frequency. Miniature oscillations were not observed in denervated chromatophores. These results suggest that miniature oscillations of chromatophores are driven by motor neuronal activities in the CNS and that frequency and synchrony of this oscillation determine the chromatic pattern and the expansion size, respectively. © 2011 Suzuki et al.

Mg(2+) plays important roles in numerous cellular functions. Mitochondria take part in intracellular Mg(2+) regulation and the Mg(2+) concentration in mitochondria affects the synthesis of ATP. However, there are few methods to observe Mg(2+) in mitochondria in intact cells. Here, we have developed a novel Mg(2+)-selective fluorescent probe, KMG-301, that is functional in mitochondria. This probe changes its fluorescence properties solely depending on the Mg(2+) concentration in mitochondria under physiologically normal conditions. Simultaneous measurements using this probe together with a probe for cytosolic Mg(2+), KMG-104, enabled us to compare the dynamics of Mg(2+) in the cytosol and in mitochondria. With this method, carbonyl cyanide p-(trifluoromethoxy) phenylhydrazone (FCCP)-induced Mg(2+) mobilization from mitochondria to the cytosol was visualized. Although a FCCP-induced decrease in the Mg(2+) concentration in mitochondria and an increase in the cytosol were observed both in differentiated PC12 cells and in hippocampal neurons, the time-courses of concentration changes varied with cell type. Moreover, the relationship between mitochondrial Mg(2+) and Parkinson's disease was analyzed in a cellular model of Parkinson's disease by using the 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion (MPP(+)). A gradual decrease in the Mg(2+) concentration in mitochondria was observed in response to MPP(+) in differentiated PC12 cells. These results indicate that KMG-301 is useful for investigating Mg(2+) dynamics in mitochondria. All animal procedures to obtain neurons from Wistar rats were approved by the ethical committee of Keio University (permit number is 09106-(1)).

The phylogenetic position of ascidians as the chordate invertebrates closest to vertebrates suggests that they might possess homologs and/or prototypes of vertebrate peptide hormones and neuropeptides as well as ascidian-specific peptides. However, only a small number of peptides have so far been identified in ascidians. In the present study, we have identified various peptides in the ascidian, Ciona intestinalis. Mass spectrometry-based peptidomic analysis detected 33 peptides, including 26 novel peptides, from C. intestinalis. The ascidian peptides are largely classified into three categories: 1) prototypes and homologs of vertebrate peptides, such as galanin/galanin-like peptide, which have never been identified in any invertebrates; 2) peptides partially homologous with vertebrate peptides, including novel neurotesin-like peptides; 3) novel peptides. These results not only provide evidence that C. intestinalis possesses various homologs and prototypes of vertebrate neuropeptides and peptide hormones but also suggest that several of these peptides might have diverged in the ascidian-specific evolutionary lineage. All Ciona peptide genes were expressed in the neural complex, where as several peptide gene transcripts were also distributed in peripheral tissues, including the ovary. Furthermore, a Ciona neurotensin-like peptide, C. intestinalis neurotensin-like peptide 6, was shown to down-regulate growth of Ciona vitellogenic oocytes. These results suggest that the Ciona peptides act not only as neuropeptides in the neural tissue but also as hormones in nonneuronal tissues and that ascidians, unlike other invertebrates, such as nematodes, insects, and sea urchins, established an evolutionary origin of the peptidergic neuroendocrine, endocrine, and nervous systems of vertebrates with certain specific molecular diversity. Copyright © 2011 by The Endocrine Society.

The Ciona intestinalis protein database (CIPRO) is an integrated protein database for the tunicate species C. intestinalis. The database is unique in two respects: first, because of its phylogenetic position, Ciona is suitable model for understanding vertebrate evolution; and second, the database includesoriginal large-scale transcriptomic and proteomic data. Ciona intestinalis has also been a favorite ofdevelopmental biologists. Therefore, large amounts of data exist on its development and morphology, along with a recent genome sequence and geneexpression data. The CIPRO database is aimed at collecting those published data as well as providing unique information from unpublished experimental data, such as 3D expression profiling, 2D-PAGE and mass spectrometry-based large-scale analysesat various developmental stages, curated annotation data and various bioinformatic data, to facilitate research in diverse areas, including developmental, comparative and evolutionary biology. For medical and evolutionary research, homologs in humans and major model organisms are intentionally included. The current database is based on a recently developed KH model containing 36 034 unique sequences, but for higher usability it covers 89 683 all known and predicted proteins from all gene models for this species. Of these sequences, more than 10 000 proteins have been manually annotated. Furthermore, to establish a communitysupported protein database, these annotations are open to evaluation by users through the CIPRO website. CIPRO 2.5 is freely accessible at http:// cipro.ibio.jp/2.5. © The Author(s) 2010.