論文

Single episodes of cortical spreading depression (CSD) are believed to cause typical migraine aura, whereas clusters of spreading depolarizations have been observed in cerebral ischemia and subarachnoid hemorrhage. We recently demonstrated that the release of high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) from cortical neurons after CSD in a rodent model is dependent on the number of CSD episodes, such that only multiple CSD episodes can induce significant HMGB1 release. Here, we report that only multiple CSD inductions caused microglial hypertrophy (activation) accompanied by a greater impact on the transcription activity of the HMGB1 receptor genes, TLR2 and TLR4, while the total number of cortical microglia was not affected. Both an HMGB1-neurtalizing antibody and the HMGB1 inhibitor glycyrrhizin abrogated multiple CSD-induced microglial hypertrophy. Moreover, multiple CSD inductions failed to induce microglial hypertrophy in TLR2/4 double knockout mice. These results strongly implicate the HMGB1-TLR2/4 axis in the activation of microglia following multiple CSD inductions. Increased expression of the lysosomal acid hydrolase cathepsin D was detected in activated microglia by immunostaining, suggesting that lysosomal phagocytic activity may be enhanced in multiple CSD-activated microglia.

Neurovascular coupling is a fundamental response that links activity to perfusion. Traditional paradigms of neurovascular coupling utilize somatosensory stimulation to activate the primary sensory cortex through subcortical relays. Therefore, examination of neurovascular coupling in disease models can be confounded if the disease process affects these multisynaptic pathways. Optogenetic stimulation is an alternative to directly activate neurons, bypassing the subcortical relays. We employed minimally invasive optogenetic cortical activation through intact skull in Thy1-channelrhodopsin-2 transgenic mice, examined the blood flow changes using laser speckle imaging, and related these to evoked electrophysiological activity. Our data show that optogenetic activation of barrel cortex triggers intensity- and frequency-dependent hyperemia both locally within the barrel cortex (>50% CBF increase), and remotely within the ipsilateral motor cortex (>30% CBF increase). Intriguingly, activation of the barrel cortex causes a small (∼10%) but reproducible hypoperfusion within the contralateral barrel cortex, electrophysiologically linked to transhemispheric inhibition. Cortical spreading depression, known to cause neurovascular uncoupling, diminishes optogenetic hyperemia by more than 50% for up to an hour despite rapid recovery of evoked electrophysiological activity, recapitulating a unique feature of physiological neurovascular coupling. Altogether, these data establish a minimally invasive paradigm to investigate neurovascular coupling for longitudinal characterization of cerebrovascular pathologies.

RATIONALE: Recently, drug-related myasthenia gravis (MG) has received attention, because the number of reported cases involving MG associated with immune checkpoint inhibitors, a new immunotherapy, is increasing. We present a case involving the new onset of MG, in which the symptoms started shortly after intravesical Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) for bladder cancer. PATIENT CONCERNS: A 69-year-old male with bladder cancer developed ptosis and diplopia 4 days after the completion of a treatment regimen with intravesical BCG weekly for 6 weeks. DIAGNOSES: Ocular MG was confirmed by a positive serum anti-acetylcholine receptor antibody test. INTERVENTIONS: Treatment with high-dose methylprednisolone pulse therapy was given, after insufficient treatment with pyridostigmine bromide and 10 mg/d prednisolone. OUTCOMES: Symptoms resolved completely 12 days after high-dose methylprednisolone pulse therapy. LESSONS: Intravesical BCG could be listed as a novel drug that may induce a new onset of MG along with drugs such as D-penicillamine and immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Cortical spreading depolarization (CSD) induces pro-inflammatory gene expression in brain tissue. However, previous studies assessing the relationship between CSD and inflammation have used invasive methods that directly trigger inflammation. To eliminate the injury confounder, we induced CSDs non-invasively through intact skull using optogenetics in Thy1-channelrhodopsin-2 transgenic mice. We corroborated our findings by minimally invasive KCl-induced CSDs through thinned skull. Six CSDs induced over 1 h dramatically increased cortical interleukin-1β (IL-1β), chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) mRNA expression peaking around 1, 2 and 4 h, respectively. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) were only modestly elevated. A single CSD also increased IL-1β, CCL2, and TNF-α, and revealed an ultra-early IL-1β response within 10 min. The response was blunted in IL-1 receptor-1 knockout mice, implicating IL-1β as an upstream mediator, and suppressed by dexamethasone, but not ibuprofen. CSD did not alter systemic inflammatory indices. In summary, this is the first report of pro-inflammatory gene expression after non-invasively induced CSDs. Altogether, our data provide novel insights into the role of CSD-induced neuroinflammation in migraine headache pathogenesis and have implications for the inflammatory processes in acute brain injury where numerous CSDs occur for days.

Background and Purpose- Inflammation is a critical determinant of aneurysmal wall destabilization, growth, and rupture risk. Targeting inflammation may suppress aneurysm rupture. Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) has been shown to suppress inflammation both systemically and in the central nervous system. Therefore, we tested the effect of a novel noninvasive transcutaneous VNS approach on aneurysm rupture and outcome in a mouse model of intracranial aneurysm formation with wall inflammation. Methods- Aneurysms were induced by a single stereotaxic injection of elastase into the cerebrospinal fluid at the skull base, combined with systemic deoxycorticosterone-salt hypertension, without or with high-salt diet, for mild or severe outcomes, respectively. Cervical VNS (two 2-minute stimulations 5 minutes apart) was delivered once a day starting from the day after elastase injection for the duration of follow-up. Transcutaneous stimulation of the femoral nerve (FNS) served as control. Multiple aneurysms developed in the circle of Willis and its major branches, resulting in spontaneous ruptures and subarachnoid hemorrhage, neurological deficits, and mortality. Results- In the milder model, VNS significantly reduced aneurysm rupture rate compared with FNS (29% versus 80%, respectively). Subarachnoid hemorrhage grades were also lower in the VNS group. In the more severe model, both VNS and FNS arms developed very high rupture rates (77% and 85%, respectively). However, VNS significantly improved the survival rate compared with FNS after rupture (median survival 13 versus 6 days, respectively), without diminishing the subarachnoid hemorrhage grades. Chronic daily VNS reduced MMP-9 (matrix metalloproteinase-9) expression compared with FNS, providing a potential mechanism of action. As an important control, chronic daily VNS did not alter systemic arterial blood pressure compared with FNS. Conclusions- VNS can reduce aneurysm rupture rates and improve the outcome from ruptured aneurysms.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Spreading depolarizations (SDs) are recurrent and ostensibly spontaneous depolarization waves that may contribute to infarct progression after stroke. Somatosensory activation of the metastable peri-infarct tissue triggers peri-infarct SDs at a high rate. METHODS: We directly measured the functional activation threshold to trigger SDs in peri-infarct hot zones using optogenetic stimulation after distal middle cerebral artery occlusion in Thy1-ChR2-YFP mice. RESULTS: Optogenetic activation of peri-infarct tissue triggered SDs at a strikingly high rate (64%) compared with contralateral homotopic cortex (8%; P=0.004). Laser speckle perfusion imaging identified a residual blood flow of 31±2% of baseline marking the metastable tissue with a propensity to develop SDs. CONCLUSIONS: Our data reveal a spatially distinct increase in SD susceptibility in peri-infarct tissue where physiological levels of functional activation are capable of triggering SDs. Given the potentially deleterious effects of peri-infarct SDs, the effect of sensory overstimulation in hyperacute stroke should be examined more carefully.

BACKGROUND: It is commonly known that headaches are induced by intake of specific food, drink, and/or additive. In addition, some patients experience postprandial headache independent of ingestion of specific items. Currently, information on the pathophysiology underlying this particular type of headache is scarce. CASE REPORTS: We report two cases in which headaches were observed after each meal. Postprandial hypotension was demonstrated in both cases. Tonometry-based continuous blood pressure measurement during head-up tilt revealed sympathetic dysfunction. In one patient, meta-iodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) myocardial scintigraphy detected cardiac sympathetic denervation, and diagnosis of pure autonomic failure was made. In both cases, treatment of postprandial hypotension was effective in relieving postprandial headache. DISCUSSION: The possibility of postprandial hypotension should be explored in patients with headache that occurs after meal. To this end, tonometry-based blood pressure measurement and MIBG myocardial scintigraphy may be useful diagnostic investigations. Treating postprandial hypotension may be effective in alleviating the symptoms.

BACKGROUND: Cortical spreading depolarization (CSD) is a phenomenon classically associated with migraine aura. CSDs have also been implicated in secondary injury following ischemic stroke, intracerebral hemorrhage, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and traumatic brain injury; however, most investigations involving these disease processes do not account for the occurrence of CSDs. A major barrier to detection of CSDs in experimental models is that currently validated methods are invasive and require specialized equipment and a high level of expertise to implement. NEW METHOD: We present a low-cost, easy-to-implement approach to the detection of CSDs in the mouse through full-thickness intact skull. Our method uses the optical intrinsic signal from white light illumination (OIS-WL) and allows for real-time in vivo detection of CSDs using readily available USB cameras. RESULTS: OIS-WL detected 100% of CSDs that were seen with simultaneous electrode recording (69 CSDs in 28 mice), laser Doppler flowmetry (82 CSDs in 10 mice), laser speckle flowmetry (68 CSDs in 25 mice), or combined electrode recording plus laser speckle flowmetry (29 CSDs in 20 mice). OIS-WL detected 1 additional CSD that was missed by laser Doppler flowmetry. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS: OIS-WL is less invasive than electrophysiological recordings and easier to implement than laser speckle flowmetry. Moreover, it provides excellent spatial and temporal resolution for dynamic imaging of CSDs in the setting of brain injury. CONCLUSIONS: Detection of CSDs with an inexpensive USB camera and white light source provides a reliable method for the in vivo and non-invasive detection of CSDs through unaltered mouse skull.

BACKGROUND: Visual snow syndrome (VSS) is a neurological condition characterized by persistent flickering dots in the visual fields, palinopsia, enhanced entoptic phenomenon, photophobia, and nyctalopia. Neuroimaging evidence supports the role of the visual association cortex in visual snow syndrome.Case series: We provided clinical care to three patients with visual snow syndrome, in whom [123I]-IMP single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) imaging was performed. Case 1 was a 21-year-old male with a past history of migraine with aura who exhibited visual snow and entoptic phenomenon. In this patient, [123I]-IMP SPECT imaging revealed right occipital and temporal hypoperfusion with a distribution matching the ventral visual stream. [123I]-IMP SPECT imaging detected only mild bilateral frontal hypoperfusion in Case 2 and no overt abnormalities in Case 3. CONCLUSION: Although visual snow syndrome seems to be a heterogenous condition, our observations indicate that abnormal visual processing within the ventral visual stream may play a role in the pathogenesis of this condition.

Cortical spreading depression (CSD) has been implicated in a variety of neurological disorders. However, the relationship between serum sex hormones and susceptibility to the development of CSD in naturally estrous cycling female animals is largely unknown. The natural estrous cycle of mice consists of four stages, namely, proestrus, estrus, metestrus and diestrus. We measured the serum concentration of estradiol and progesterone in estrus and diestrus and compared the minimum potassium concentrations necessary to evoke CSD in each stage and in males. In diestrus, the minimum potassium concentration required to evoke CSD was significantly lower compared to the other three phases and male animals. The serum level of estradiol is significantly higher and serum level of progesterone is significantly lower in diestrus compared to estrus. Furthermore, when we administered an estrogen receptor antagonist, the susceptibility to the development of CSD was decreased. Conversely, the administration of a progesterone receptor antagonist increased the susceptibility to CSD. Our results demonstrated that neuronal excitability related to CSD induction differs among the natural estrous phases in mice.

OBJECTIVE: Headache disorders like migraine show geographic and ethnic differences between Asian and European/North American countries. In cluster headache, these differences are rarely mentioned and discussed. This article aimed to review the characteristics of cluster headache in Asian countries and compare the clinical features to those in European and North American populations. METHODS: We conducted a narrative literature review on the demographics, clinical presentations, and treatments of cluster headache in Asian countries. RESULTS: Patients with cluster headache in Asian populations showed a stronger male predominance compared to European and North American populations. Chronic cluster headache was rare in Asian countries. The clinical presentation of restlessness was not as common in Asian as it was in European and North American countries, and Asian patients with aura were extremely rare. Patients in Asian countries may have a lower circadian rhythmicity of cluster headache and a lower headache load, as demonstrated by lower attack frequencies per day, bout frequencies, and bout durations. CONCLUSIONS: Regional differences in the presentation of cluster headache exist. Greater awareness for cluster headache should be raised in Asian regions, and further studies are warranted to elucidate the mechanisms behind observed differences.

Cortical spreading depolarisation (CSD), the neural mechanism underlying migraine aura, may cause headache by sensitising the trigeminal system. Photophobia, the most bothersome accompanying symptom during migraine attacks, is more prevalent in migraine with aura than in migraine without aura. Whether CSD plays a role in developing photophobia remains unknown. Moreover, migraine-induced physical hypoactivity contributes to loss of productivity. We aimed to investigate the development of trigeminal sensitisation, photophobia and locomotive abnormality after KCl-induced CSD using 86 male C57BL/6 mice. Sham-operated mice were used as controls. We confirmed the presence of trigeminal sensitisation and photophobia at 24 h after CSD. CSD-subjected mice also exhibited significantly reduced locomotive activity in both light and dark zones. Hence, the CSD-induced hypomobility was likely to be independent of photophobia. The 5-HT1B/1D agonist, sumatriptan, corrected all these CSD-induced abnormalities. Moreover, dose dependency was demonstrated in the ameliorating effect of the calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) receptor antagonist, olcegepant, on these abnormalities. Sumatriptan and olcegepant improved mouse locomotion with therapeutic lags ranging from 20 to 30 min. Collectively, CSD caused trigeminal sensitisation, photophobia and hypomobility that persisted for at least 24 h by a mechanism involving the 5-HT1B/1D and CGRP activity.