論文

Various hormonal stimuli and growth factors activate the mammalian canonical transient receptor potential (TRPC) channel through phospholipase C (PLC) activation. However, the precise mechanism of the regulation of TRPC channel activity remains unknown. Here, we provide the first evidence that direct tyrosine phosphorylation by Src family protein-tyrosine kinases (PTKs) is a novel mechanism for modulating TRPC6 channel activity. We found that TRPC6 is tyrosine-phosphorylated in COS-7 cells when coexpressed with Fyn, a member of the Src family PTKs. We also found that Fyn interacts with TRPC6 and that the interaction is mediated by the SH2 domain of Fyn and the N-terminal region of TRPC6 in a phosphorylation-independent manner. In addition, we demonstrated the physical association of TRPC6 with Fyn in the mammalian brain. Moreover, we showed that stimulation of the epidermal growth factor receptor induced rapid tyrosine phosphorylation of TRPC6 in COS-7 cells. This epidermal growth factor-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of TRPC6 was significantly blocked by PP2, a specific inhibitor of Src family PTKs, and by a dominant negative form of Fyn, suggesting that the direct phosphorylation of TRPC6 by Src family PTKs could be caused by physiological stimulation. Furthermore, using single channel recording, we showed that Fyn modulates TRPC6 channel activity via tyrosine phosphorylation. Thus, our findings demonstrated that tyrosine phosphorylation by Src family PTKs is a novel regulatory mechanism of TRPC6 channel activity.

Since the discovery of SRY/Sry as a testis-determining gene on the mammalian Y chromosome in 1990, extensive studies have been carried out on the immediate target of SRY/Sry and genes functioning in the course of testis development. Comparative studies in non-mammalian vertebrates including birds have failed to find a gene equivalent to SRY/Sry, whereas they have suggested that most of the downstream factors found in mammals including SOX9 are also involved in the process of gonadal differentiation. Although a gene whose function is to trigger the cascade of gene expression toward gonadal differentiation has not been identified yet on either W or Z chromosomes of birds, a few interesting genes have been found recently on the sex chromosomes of chickens and their possible roles in sex determination or sex differentiation are being investigated. It is the purpose of this review to summarize the present knowledge of these sex chromosome-linked genes in chickens and to give perspectives and point out questions concerning the mechanisms of avian sex determination. Copyright (C) 2002 S. Karger AG, Basel.

Osteoclasts are bone-resorbing cells of monocytic origin. An imbalance between bone formation and resorption can lead to osteoporosis or osteopetrosis. Osteoclastogenesis is triggered by RANKL- and IP3-induced Ca2+ influx followed by activation of NFATc1, a master transcription factor for osteoclastogenic gene regulation. During differentiation, osteoclasts undergo cytoskeletal remodeling to migrate and attach to the bone surface. Simultaneously, they fuse with each other to form multinucleated cells. These processes require PI3-kinase-dependent cytoskeletal protein activation to initiate cytoskeletal remodeling, resulting in the formation of circumferential podosomes and fusion-competent protrusions. In multinucleated osteoclasts, circumferential podosomes mature into stabilized actin rings, which enables the formation of a ruffled border where intensive membrane trafficking is executed. Membrane lipids, especially phosphoinositides, are key signaling molecules that regulate osteoclast morphology and act as second messengers and docking sites for multiple important effectors. We examine the critical roles of phosphoinositides in the signaling cascades that regulate osteoclast functions. © 2013 The Author(s).

Homer proteins are components of postsynaptic density (PSD) and play a crucial role in coupling diverse target molecules. However, the regulatory aspect of Homer-mediated coupling has been addressed only about a dominant-negative effect of Homer1a, which requires de novo gene expression. Here, we present evidence that Homer-mediated coupling is regulated by its phosphorylation state. We found that Homer3, the predominant isoform in Purkinje cells, is phosphorylated by calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) both in vitro and in vivo. Biochemical fractionation with phosphor-specific antibodies revealed the presence of phosphorylated Homer3 in the cytosolic fraction in contrast to high levels of nonphosphorylated Homer3 in PSD. In P/Q-type voltage-gated-Ca2+ channel knock-out mice, in which CaMKII activation was reduced, the levels of Homer3 phosphorylation and the soluble form of Homer 3 were markedly lower. Furthermore, both robust phosphorylation of Homer3 and its dissociation from metabotropic glutamate receptor 1α (mGluR1α) were triggered by depolarization in primary cultured Purkinje cells, and these events were inhibited by CaMKII inhibitor. An in vitro binding kinetic analysis revealed that these phosphorylation-dependent events were attributable to a decrease in the affinity of phosphorylated Homer3 for its ligand. In a heterologous system, the Ca2+ signaling pattern induced by mGluR1α activation was modulated by the Homer3 phosphorylation state. Together, these findings suggested that Homer3 in Purkinje cells might function as a reversible coupler regulated by CaMKII phosphorylation and that the phosphorylation is capable of regulating the postsynaptic molecular architecture in response to synaptic activity. Copyright © 2008 Society for Neuroscience.

© 2019, The Author(s). Bone growth is linked to expansion of nearby organs, as is the case for the cranial base and the brain. Here, we focused on development of the mouse clivus, a sloping surface of the basioccipital bone, to define mechanisms underlying morphological changes in bone in response to brain enlargement. Histological analysis indicated that both endocranial and ectocranial cortical bone layers in the basioccipital carry the osteoclast surface dorsally and the osteoblast surface ventrally. Finite element analysis of mechanical stress on the clivus revealed that compressive and tensile stresses appeared mainly on respective dorsal and ventral surfaces of the basioccipital bone. Osteoclastic bone resorption occurred primarily in the compression area, whereas areas of bone formation largely coincided with the tension area. These data collectively suggest that compressive and tensile stresses govern respective localization of osteoclasts and osteoblasts. Developmental analysis of the basioccipital bone revealed the clivus to be angled in early postnatal wild-type mice, whereas its slope was less prominent in Tnfsf11 −/− mice, which lack osteoclasts. We propose that osteoclast-osteoblast “trans-pairing” across cortical bone is primarily induced by mechanical stress from growing organs and regulates shape and size of bones that encase the brain.

The chemokine fractalkine (FKN) is produced by various cell types, including osteoblasts and endothelial cells in bone tissue, and signals through a sole receptor, CX3CR1, which is expressed on monocytes/macrophages, including osteoclast precursors (OCPs). However, the direct effects of FKN signaling on osteoclast lineage cells under homeostatic noninflammatory conditions remain unclear. Here, we report that FKN regulates mouse OCP survival and primes OCPs for subsequent osteoclast differentiation. Wild-type but not CX3CR1-deficient OCPs grown on immobilized FKN showed enhanced osteoclast formation following receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL) stimulation, with increased expression of osteoclast differentiation markers. Interestingly, the growth of OCPs on immobilized FKN increased the expression of Cx3cr1 and Tnfrsf11a (Rank) transcripts, but following RANKL stimulation, OCPs rapidly downregulated Cx3cr1 expression. Consistently, anti-FKN monoclonal antibody (mAb) treatment attenuated RANKL-induced osteoclast formation on immobilized FKN before, but not during, RANKL stimulation. CX3CR1 and RANK proteins were highly expressed on bone marrow-derived CD11bhigh CD115+ OCPs. Growth on immobilized FKN prior to RANKL stimulation also increased CD11bhigh CD115+ OCP number and their survival and differentiation potential. In a RANKL-based mouse model of bone loss, anti-FKN mAb pretreatment significantly inhibited RANKL-dependent bone loss. Thus, blocking the FKN-CX3CR1 axis could represent a therapeutic option in noninflammatory bone loss diseases. © 2022 The Authors. JBMR Plus published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

Chirality is an intrinsic property of cells manifested as left-right (LR) asymmetry in terms of cellular morphology and organization, which influences cell behavior, migration, and tissue development. Traditional in vitro methods used to study cell chirality often require complex fabrication methods, limiting their accessibility and reproducibility. Here, we present a novel micropattern tape method that facilitates fabrication of high-quality rectangular micropatterns useful for efficient, high-throughput analysis of cell chirality. Using this method, we characterized chirality of C2C12 myoblasts and MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts, which respectively exhibit clockwise (CW) and counterclockwise (CCW) chirality relative to the long axis of the rectangle. We used the method to analyze how cellular differentiation impacts chirality and observed striking reversal of C2C12 cell chirality upon bone morphogenic protein-2 (BMP2)-induced osteoblastic differentiation. These results demonstrate that our micropattern tape method can effectively detect dynamic change of cell chirality during differentiation.

Osteoclast differentiation depends on receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB (RANK) signaling, which can be divided into triggering, amplifying and targeting phases based on how active the master regulator nuclear factor of activated T-cells cytoplasmic 1 (NFATc1) is. The triggering phase is characterized by immediateearly RANK signaling induced by RANK ligand (RANKL) stimulation mediated by three adaptor proteins, tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6, Grb- 2-associated binder-2 and phospholipase C (PLC)γ2, leading to activation of IκB kinase, mitogen-activated protein kinases and the transcription factors nuclear factor (NF)-κB and activator protein-1 (AP-1). Mice lacking NF-κB p50/p52 or the AP-1 subunit c-Fos (encoded by Fos) exhibit severe osteopetrosis due to a differentiation block in the osteoclast lineage. The amplification phase occurs about 24 h later in a RANKLinduced osteoclastogenic culture when Ca2+oscillation starts and the transcription factor NFATc1 is abundantly produced. In addition to Ca2+oscillation-dependent nuclear translocation and transcriptional auto-induction of NFATc1, a Ca2+oscillation-independent, osteoblastdependent mechanism stabilizes NFATc1 protein in differentiating osteoclasts. Osteoclast precursors lacking PLCγ2, inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors, regulator of G-protein signaling 10, or NFATc1 show an impaired transition from the triggering to amplifying phases. The final targeting phase is mediated by activation of numerous NFATc1 target genes responsible for cell-cell fusion and regulation of bone-resorptive function. This review focuses on molecular mechanisms for each of the three phases of RANK signaling during osteoclast differentiation. © 2012 Baishideng.

Osteoclasts are multinuclear bone-resorbing cells formed by the fusion of monocyte/macrophage-lineage precursor cells. Activation of the transcription factor NFATc1 (nuclear factor of activated T cells c1) by the receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL) is critical for osteoclast differentiation. In our previous report (Y. Kuroda, C. Hisatsune, T. Nakamura, K. Matsuo, and K. Mikoshiba. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 105:8643, 2008), we demonstrated that osteoblasts induce osteoclast differentiation via Ca2+ oscillation/calcineurin-dependent and -independent NFATc1 activation pathways; however, the mechanism underlying the latter remained unclear. Here we show that Cot, a serine/threonine kinase also known as tumor progression locus 2 (Tpl-2), directly phosphorylates all Ca2+/calcineurin-regulated NFAT family members (NFATc1 through NFATc4) and increases their protein levels. Moreover, Cot activity in osteoclasts was enhanced via cell-cell interaction with osteoblasts, and Cot promoted Ca2+ oscillation/calcineurin-independent osteoclastogenesis by increasing NFATc1 stability through phosphorylation. We propose that NFAT activation in vivo occurs via phosphorylation-induced protein stabilization, even in the absence of Ca2+ oscillation and calcineurin activity. © 2012, American Society for Microbiology.

IRBIT is a recently identified protein that modulates the activities of both inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate receptor and pancreas-type Na+/HCO3- cotransporter 1, and the multisite phosphorylation of IRBIT is required for achieving this modulatory action. Here, we report the identification of the cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor (CPSF), which is a multi-protein complex involved in 3′ processing of mRNA precursors, as an additional binding partner for IRBIT. We found that IRBIT interacted with CPSF and was recruited to an exogenous polyadenylation signal-containing RNA. The main target for IRBIT in CPSF was Fip1 subunit, and the phosphorylation of the serine-rich region of IRBIT was required both for direct association with Fip1 in vitro and for redistribution of Fip1 into the cytoplasm of intact cells. Furthermore, tert-butylhydroquinone (tBHQ), an agent that induces oxidative stress, increased the phosphorylation level of IRBIT in vivo and in parallel enhanced the interaction between IRBIT and CPSF and promoted the cytoplasmic distribution of endogenous Fip1. In addition to CPSF, IRBIT interacted in vitro with poly(A) polymerase (PAP), which is the enzyme recruited by CPSF to elongate the poly(A) tail, and inhibited PAP activity in a phosphorylation-dependent manner. These findings raise the possibility that IRBIT modulates the polyadenylation state of specific mRNAs, both by controlling the cytoplasmic/nuclear partitioning of Fip1 and by inhibiting PAP activity, in response to a stimulus that alters its phosphorylation state. © 2009 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.

Here, we show that cultured Purkinje cells from inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor type 1 knock-out (IP3R1KO) mice exhibited abnormal dendritic morphology. Interestingly, despite the huge amount of IP3R1 expression in Purkinje cells, IP3R1 in granule cells, not in the Purkinje cells, was responsible for the shape of Purkinje cell dendrites. We also found that BDNF application rescued the dendritic abnormality of IP3R1KO Purkinje cells, and that the increase in BDNF expression in response to activation of AMPA receptor (AMPAR) and metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) was impaired in IP3R1KO cerebellar granule cells. In addition, we observed abnormalities in the dendritic morphology of Purkinje cells and in the ultrastructure of parallel fiber-Purkinje cell (PF-PC) synapses in IP3R1KO mice in vivo. We concluded that activation of AMPAR and mGluR increases BDNF expression through IP3R1-mediated signaling in cerebellar granule cells, which contributes to the dendritic outgrowth of Purkinje cells intercellularly, possibly by modifying PF-PC synaptic efficacy. Copyright © 2006 Society for Neuroscience.

Copyright: © 2018 Sasaki et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Smoking is a common risk factor for both chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and osteoporosis. In patients with COPD, severe emphysema is a risk factor for vertebral fracture; however, the effects of smoking or emphysema on bone health remain largely unknown. We report bone deterioration in a mouse model of emphysema induced by nose-only cigarette smoke (CS) exposure. Unexpectedly, short-term exposure for 4-weeks decreased bone turnover and increased bone volume in mice. However, prolonged exposure for 20- and 40-weeks reversed the effects from suppression to promotion of bone resorption. This long-term CS exposure increased osteoclast number and impaired bone growth, while it increased bone volume. Strikingly, long-term CS exposure deteriorated bone quality of the lumbar vertebrae as illustrated by disorientation of collagen fibers and the biological apatite c-axis. This animal model may provide a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying the deterioration of bone quality in pulmonary emphysema caused by smoking.

© 2017. In most mammals, auditory ossicles in the middle ear, including the malleus, incus and stapes, are the smallest bones. In mice, a bony structure called the auditory bulla houses the ossicles, whereas the auditory capsule encloses the inner ear, namely the cochlea and semicircular canals. Murine ossicles are essential for hearing and thus of great interest to researchers in the field of otolaryngology, but their metabolism, development, and evolution are highly relevant to other fields. Altered bone metabolism can affect hearing function in adult mice, and various gene-deficient mice show changes in morphogenesis of auditory ossicles in utero. Although murine auditory ossicles are tiny, their manipulation is feasible if one understands their anatomical orientation and 3D structure. Here, we describe how to dissect the auditory bulla and capsule of postnatal mice and then isolate individual ossicles by removing part of the bulla. We also discuss how to embed the bulla and capsule in different orientations to generate paraffin or frozen sections suitable for preparation of longitudinal, horizontal, or frontal sections of the malleus. Finally, we enumerate anatomical differences between mouse and human auditory ossicles. These methods would be useful in analyzing pathological, developmental and evolutionary aspects of auditory ossicles and the middle ear in mice.

Copyright © 2016 Kuroda et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Osteoprotegerin (OPG), a decoy receptor for receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL), antagonizes RANKL's osteoclastogenic function in bone. We previously demonstrated that systemic administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to mice elevates OPG levels and reduces RANKL levels in peripheral blood. Here, we show that mice infected with Salmonella, Staphylococcus, Mycobacteria or influenza virus also show elevated serum OPG levels. We then asked whether OPG upregulation following microbial invasion had an effect outside of bone. To do so, we treated mice with LPS and observed OPG production in pancreas, especially in β-cells of pancreatic islets. Insulin release following LPS administration was enhanced in mice lacking OPG, suggesting that OPG inhibits insulin secretion under acute inflammatory conditions. Consistently, treatment of MIN6 pancreatic β-cells with OPG decreased their insulin secretion following glucose stimulation in the presence of LPS. Finally, our findings suggest that LPS-induced OPG upregulation is mediated in part by activator protein (AP)-1 family transcription factors, particularly Fos proteins. Overall, we report that acute microbial infection elevates serum OPG, which maintains β-cell homeostasis by restricting glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, possibly preventing microbe-induced exhaustion of β-cell secretory capacity.

© 2015. Published by The Company of Biologists Ltd. Endochondral ossification is a developmental process by which cartilage is replaced by bone. Terminally differentiated hypertrophic chondrocytes are calcified, vascularized, and removed by chondroclasts before bone matrix is laid down by osteoblasts. In mammals, the malleus is one of three auditory ossicles that transmit vibrations of the tympanic membrane to the inner ear. The malleus is formed from a cartilaginous precursor without growth plate involvement, but little is known about how bones of this type undergo endochondral ossification. Here, we demonstrate that in the processus brevis of the malleus, clusters of osteoblasts surrounding the capillary loop produce bone matrix, causing the volume of the capillary lumen to decrease rapidly in post-weaning mice. Synchrotron X-ray tomographic microscopy revealed a concentric, cylindrical arrangement of osteocyte lacunae along capillaries, indicative of pericapillary bone formation. Moreover, we report that overexpression of Fosl1, which encodes a component of the AP-1 transcription factor complex, in osteoblasts significantly blocked malleal capillary narrowing. These data suggest that osteoblast/endothelial cell interactions control growth plate-free endochondral ossification through ‘osteogenic capillaries’ in a Fosl1-regulated manner.

© 2015, National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP3R) binding protein released with IP3 (IRBIT) contributes to various physiological events (electrolyte transport and fluid secretion, mRNA polyadenylation, and the maintenance of genomic integrity) through its interaction with multiple targets. However, little is known about the physiological role of IRBIT in the brain. Here we identified calcium calmodulin-dependent kinase II alpha (CaMKIIα) as an IRBIT-interacting molecule in the central nervous system. IRBIT binds to and suppresses CaMKIIα kinase activity by inhibiting the binding of calmodulin to CaMKIIα. In addition, we show that mice lacking IRBIT present with elevated catecholamine levels, increased locomotor activity, and social abnormalities. The level of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) phosphorylation by CaMKIIα, which affects TH activity, was significantly increased in the ventral tegmental area of IRBIT-deficient mice. We concluded that IRBIT suppresses CaMKIIα activity and contributes to catecholamine homeostasis through TH phosphorylation.