論文

The glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF)/RET tyrosine kinase signaling pathway plays crucial roles in the development of the enteric nervous system (ENS) and the kidney. Tyrosine 1062 (Y1062) in RET is an autophosphorylation residue that is responsible for the activation of the PI3K/AKT and RAS/MAPK signaling pathways. Mice lacking signaling via Ret Y1062 show renal hypoplasia and hypoganglionosis of the ENS although the phenotype is milder than the Gdnf- or Ret-deficient mice. Sprouty2 (Spry2) was found to be an antagonist for fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) and acts as an inhibitory regulator of ERK activation. Spry2-deficient mice exhibit hearing loss and enteric nerve hyperplasia. In the present study, we generated Spry2-deficient and Ret Y1062F knock-in (tyrosine 1062 is replaced with phenylalanine) double mutant mice to see if abnormalities of the ENS and kidney, caused by loss of signaling via Ret Y1062, are rescued by a deficiency of Spry2. Double mutant mice showed significant recovery of ureteric bud branching and ENS development in the stomach. These results indicate that Spry2 regulates downstream signaling mediated by GDNF/RET signaling complex in vivo. © 2010 Elsevier Inc.

Th2 cytokines and their downstream Janus kinase (JAK)-signal transducer and activation of transcription (STAT) pathways play a critical role in allergic asthma. We studied the effects of a pan-JAK inhibitor, pyridone 6 (P6), on asthmatic responses in a mouse model and investigated the mechanism for its biological effects. Mice were sensitized and challenged by ovalbumin (OVA). P6 treatment during the challenge phase suppressed eosinophilia in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluids but did not affect airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR). To improve the efficacy of the JAK inhibitor, P6 was encapsulated in polylactic- coglycolic acid nanoparticles (P6-PLGA). P6-PLGA treatment just before OVA challenge suppressed both airway eosinophilia and AHR. Although the IL-13 levels in BAL fluids and the OVA-specific IgE levels in serum after the challenge phase treatment with P6-PLGA were similar to those after a sham treatment, the eotaxin levels in BAL fluids and lung mCLCA3/Gob-5 expression were decreased in P6-PLGA-treated mice. Interestingly, the local IL-13 levels and serum OVA-specific IgE were decreased, while IL-17-producing T cells were increased by P6-PLGA treatment during the sensitization plus challenge phases. In vitro, P6 strongly suppressed the differentiation of Th2 from naive CD4 T cells, but it partly enhanced Th17 differentiation. P6 potently suppressed IL-13-mediated STAT6 activation and mCLCA3/Gob-5 expression in mouse tracheal epithelial cells. These findings suggest that the JAK inhibitor P6 suppresses asthmatic responses by inhibiting Th2 inflammation and that application of PLGA nanoparticles improves the therapeutic potency of P6. © 2010 Elsevier Inc.

Th2 cytokines and their downstream Janus kinase (JAK)-signal transducer and activation of transcription (STAT) pathways play a critical role in allergic asthma. We studied the effects of a pan-JAK inhibitor, pyridone 6 (P6), on asthmatic responses in a mouse model and investigated the mechanism for its biological effects. Mice were sensitized and challenged by ovalbumin (OVA). P6 treatment during the challenge phase suppressed eosinophilia in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluids but did not affect airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR). To improve the efficacy of the JAK inhibitor, P6 was encapsulated in polylactic- coglycolic acid nanoparticles (P6-PLGA). P6-PLGA treatment just before OVA challenge suppressed both airway eosinophilia and AHR. Although the IL-13 levels in BAL fluids and the OVA-specific IgE levels in serum after the challenge phase treatment with P6-PLGA were similar to those after a sham treatment, the eotaxin levels in BAL fluids and lung mCLCA3/Gob-5 expression were decreased in P6-PLGA-treated mice. Interestingly, the local IL-13 levels and serum OVA-specific IgE were decreased, while IL-17-producing T cells were increased by P6-PLGA treatment during the sensitization plus challenge phases. In vitro, P6 strongly suppressed the differentiation of Th2 from naive CD4 T cells, but it partly enhanced Th17 differentiation. P6 potently suppressed IL-13-mediated STAT6 activation and mCLCA3/Gob-5 expression in mouse tracheal epithelial cells. These findings suggest that the JAK inhibitor P6 suppresses asthmatic responses by inhibiting Th2 inflammation and that application of PLGA nanoparticles improves the therapeutic potency of P6. © 2010 Elsevier Inc.

Recently, inflammation has been implicated in the progression of cerebral ischemic injury. Especially, T lymphocytes have been shown to infiltrate into the ischemic brain 24 hours after the onset, however, the function and specific subpopulation of these infiltrated T lymphocytes have not been fully understood. By using cytokine-deficient mice with transient focal ischemia model, we have shown that IL-23 and IL-17 but not IL-6 or IFN-γ play pivotal roles in the ischemic brain injury. We found that IL-23, which was mainly produced from infiltrated macrophages, induced IL-17-producing T lymphocytes in the ischemic brain. IL-23 and IL-17 expression increased 1 day or 3 day after ischemic injury, respectively, and promoted inflammatory responses by increasing the expression of neurotoxic factors. To our surprise, IL-17 was mainly produced by γδT lymphocytes, but not helper T cells. Based on these findings, we have tried to develop new therapeutic strategy for the progression of brain infarction. We found that administration of FTY720 (Fingolimod) and antibody against γδT lymphocytes attenuated ischemic brain damage. Furthermore, antibody against p40 which neutralizes both IL-23 and IL-12 simultaneously was also effective. Therefore, anti-cytokine therapy will be applicable for neuroprotection in the delayed phase of brain ischemia.

Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) has been shown to play an essential role in establishing immunological tolerance, yet recent studies have revealed the pro-inflammatory roles of TGF-β in inflammatory responses. TGF-β induces Foxp3-positive regulatory T cells (iTregs), while in the presence of IL-6, it induces pathogenic IL-17 producing Th17 cells. TGF-β inhibits the proliferation of T cells as well as cytokine production via Foxp3-dependent and independent mechanisms. On the one hand, little is known about molecular mechanisms involved in immune suppression via TGF-β however, recent studies suggest that Smad2 as well as Smad3 play essential roles in Foxp3 induction and cytokine suppression, whereas Th17 differentiation is promoted via the Smad-independent pathway. Mutual suppression of signaling between TGF-β and inflammatory cytokines has been shown to be necessary for the balance of immunity and tolerance. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011.

Recently, inflammation has been implicated in the progression of cerebral ischemic injury. Especially, T lymphocytes have been shown to infiltrate into the ischemic brain 24 hours after the onset, however, the function and specific subpopulation of these infiltrated T lymphocytes have not been fully understood. By using cytokine-deficient mice with transient focal ischemia model, we have shown that IL-23 and IL-17 but not IL-6 or IFN-γ play pivotal roles in the ischemic brain injury. We found that IL-23, which was mainly produced from infiltrated macrophages, induced IL-17-producing T lymphocytes in the ischemic brain. IL-23 and IL-17 expression increased 1 day or 3 day after ischemic injury, respectively, and promoted inflammatory responses by increasing the expression of neurotoxic factors. To our surprise, IL-17 was mainly produced by γδT lymphocytes, but not helper T cells. Based on these findings, we have tried to develop new therapeutic strategy for the progression of brain infarction. We found that administration of FTY720 (Fingolimod) and antibody against γδT lymphocytes attenuated ischemic brain damage. Furthermore, antibody against p40 which neutralizes both IL-23 and IL-12 simultaneously was also effective. Therefore, anti-cytokine therapy will be applicable for neuroprotection in the delayed phase of brain ischemia.

Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) has been shown to play an essential role in establishing immunological tolerance, yet recent studies have revealed the pro-inflammatory roles of TGF-β in inflammatory responses. TGF-β induces Foxp3-positive regulatory T cells (iTregs), while in the presence of IL-6, it induces pathogenic IL-17 producing Th17 cells. TGF-β inhibits the proliferation of T cells as well as cytokine production via Foxp3-dependent and independent mechanisms. On the one hand, little is known about molecular mechanisms involved in immune suppression via TGF-β however, recent studies suggest that Smad2 as well as Smad3 play essential roles in Foxp3 induction and cytokine suppression, whereas Th17 differentiation is promoted via the Smad-independent pathway. Mutual suppression of signaling between TGF-β and inflammatory cytokines has been shown to be necessary for the balance of immunity and tolerance. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011.

STAP-2 (signal transducing adaptor protein-2) is a recently identified adaptor protein that contains pleckstrin homology (PH) and Src homology 2-like domains, as well as a STAT3-binding motif in its C-terminal region. STAP-2 is also a substrate of breast tumor kinase (Brk). In breast cancers, Brk expression is deregulated and promotes STAT3-dependent cell proliferation. In the present study, manipulated STAP-2 expression demonstrated essential roles of STAP-2 in Brk-mediated STAT3 activation. STAP-2 interacts with both Brk and STAT3. In addition, small interfering RNA-mediated reduction of endogenous STAP-2 expression strongly decreased Brk-mediated STAT3 activation in T47D breast cancer cells. The PH domain of STAP-2 is involved in multiple steps: the binding between Brk and STAP-2, the activation and tyrosine phosphorylation of STAT3, and the activation of Brk. Notably, a STAP-2 PH-Brk fusion protein exhibited robust kinase activity and increased activation and tyrosine phosphorylation of STAT3. Finally, STAP-2 knockdown in T47D cells induced a significant decrease of proliferation, as strong as that of Brk or STAT3 knockdown. Taken together, our findings are likely to inform the development of a novel therapeutic strategy, as well as the determination of novel prognostic values, in breast carcinomas. © 2010 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.

STAP-2 (signal transducing adaptor protein-2) is a recently identified adaptor protein that contains pleckstrin homology (PH) and Src homology 2-like domains, as well as a STAT3-binding motif in its C-terminal region. STAP-2 is also a substrate of breast tumor kinase (Brk). In breast cancers, Brk expression is deregulated and promotes STAT3-dependent cell proliferation. In the present study, manipulated STAP-2 expression demonstrated essential roles of STAP-2 in Brk-mediated STAT3 activation. STAP-2 interacts with both Brk and STAT3. In addition, small interfering RNA-mediated reduction of endogenous STAP-2 expression strongly decreased Brk-mediated STAT3 activation in T47D breast cancer cells. The PH domain of STAP-2 is involved in multiple steps: the binding between Brk and STAP-2, the activation and tyrosine phosphorylation of STAT3, and the activation of Brk. Notably, a STAP-2 PH-Brk fusion protein exhibited robust kinase activity and increased activation and tyrosine phosphorylation of STAT3. Finally, STAP-2 knockdown in T47D cells induced a significant decrease of proliferation, as strong as that of Brk or STAT3 knockdown. Taken together, our findings are likely to inform the development of a novel therapeutic strategy, as well as the determination of novel prognostic values, in breast carcinomas. © 2010 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.

Cerebral malaria (CM) is the most severe complication of Plasmodium infection. Although inappropriate immune responses to Plasmodium falciparum are reported as the major causes of CM, the precise mechanisms for development remain unclear. IL-23 and IL-17 have critical roles in the onset of autoimmunity and inflammatory diseases triggered by microbial infections. Thus, we investigated the influence of IL-23 and IL-17 on experimental CM (ECM) using Plasmodium berghei ANKA infection of C57BL/6 mice. Both IL-23 deficient mice and wild-type (WT) mice developed ECM. IL-17 deficient mice also developed ECM, while IL-17 producing cells other than CD4 + T cells (Th17) were increased in WT mice that developed ECM. In conclusion, this study showed that IL-23 and IL-17 are not involved in ECM development. © 2010 Elsevier Inc.

Suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3) is an important intracellular protein that inhibits cytokine signaling in numerous cell types and has been implicated in several inflammatory diseases. However, the expression and function of SOCS3 in osteoblasts are not known. In this study, we demonstrated that SOCS3 expression was transiently induced by LPS in osteoblasts, and apparently contributed to the inhibition of IL-6 induction by LPS treatment. We found that tyrosine 204 of the SOCS box, the SH2 domain, and the N-terminal kinase inhibitory region (KIR) of SOCS3 were all involved in its IL-6 inhibition. Furthermore, we demonstrated that CCAAT/enhancerbinding protein (C/EBP) β was activated by LPS (increased DNA binding activity), and played a key role in LPS-induced IL-6 expression in osteoblasts. We further provided the evidence that SOCS3 functioned as a negative regulator for LPS response in osteoblasts by suppressing C/EBPβ DNA binding activity. In addition, tyrosine 204 of the SOCS box, the SH2 domain, and the N-terminal kinase inhibitory region (KIR) of SOCS3 were all required for its C/EBPβ inhibition. These findings suggest that SOCS3 by interfering with C/EBPβ activation may have an important regulatory role during bone-associated inflammatory responses.

Cerebral malaria (CM) is the most severe complication of Plasmodium infection. Although inappropriate immune responses to Plasmodium falciparum are reported as the major causes of CM, the precise mechanisms for development remain unclear. IL-23 and IL-17 have critical roles in the onset of autoimmunity and inflammatory diseases triggered by microbial infections. Thus, we investigated the influence of IL-23 and IL-17 on experimental CM (ECM) using Plasmodium berghei ANKA infection of C57BL/6 mice. Both IL-23 deficient mice and wild-type (WT) mice developed ECM. IL-17 deficient mice also developed ECM, while IL-17 producing cells other than CD4 + T cells (Th17) were increased in WT mice that developed ECM. In conclusion, this study showed that IL-23 and IL-17 are not involved in ECM development. © 2010 Elsevier Inc.

Suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3) is an important intracellular protein that inhibits cytokine signaling in numerous cell types and has been implicated in several inflammatory diseases. However, the expression and function of SOCS3 in osteoblasts are not known. In this study, we demonstrated that SOCS3 expression was transiently induced by LPS in osteoblasts, and apparently contributed to the inhibition of IL-6 induction by LPS treatment. We found that tyrosine 204 of the SOCS box, the SH2 domain, and the N-terminal kinase inhibitory region (KIR) of SOCS3 were all involved in its IL-6 inhibition. Furthermore, we demonstrated that CCAAT/enhancerbinding protein (C/EBP) β was activated by LPS (increased DNA binding activity), and played a key role in LPS-induced IL-6 expression in osteoblasts. We further provided the evidence that SOCS3 functioned as a negative regulator for LPS response in osteoblasts by suppressing C/EBPβ DNA binding activity. In addition, tyrosine 204 of the SOCS box, the SH2 domain, and the N-terminal kinase inhibitory region (KIR) of SOCS3 were all required for its C/EBPβ inhibition. These findings suggest that SOCS3 by interfering with C/EBPβ activation may have an important regulatory role during bone-associated inflammatory responses.

Recently, T cell cytokines such as IL-17 and IFN-γ have been shown to play important roles in the progression of brain injury induced by ischemia. We have shown that IL-23 from infiltrated macrophages activates γδT cells, thereby inducing IL-17 from these cells. However, deletion of the IL-23 gene in mice showed a more dramatic protective effect against brain ischemia reperfusion (I/R) model than γδT cell depletion did, suggesting that IL-23 plays some other pivotal role in brain injury in addition to its role in IL-17 induction. To develop therapeutic methods based on these findings, we examined the effect of the JAK kinase inhibitor CP-690550 and an anti-IL12/23 monoclonal antibody on an I/R model. CP-690550 efficiently inhibited IL-17 production from memory T cells in vitro and partly suppressed infarct volume increase after I/R. Anti-p40 antibody, which blocks both IL-12 and IL-23, efficiently suppressed I/R injury and improved recovery of neurological deficits. The number of IL-17-producing cells was decreased by anti-p40 antibody treatment. Thus the JAK inhibitor and anti-p40 antibody, both of which have already been under trial for the treatment of several human inflammatory diseases, appear to be promising therapeutic agents for the amelioration of stroke. © 2010 Elsevier Inc.

Recently, T cell cytokines such as IL-17 and IFN-γ have been shown to play important roles in the progression of brain injury induced by ischemia. We have shown that IL-23 from infiltrated macrophages activates γδT cells, thereby inducing IL-17 from these cells. However, deletion of the IL-23 gene in mice showed a more dramatic protective effect against brain ischemia reperfusion (I/R) model than γδT cell depletion did, suggesting that IL-23 plays some other pivotal role in brain injury in addition to its role in IL-17 induction. To develop therapeutic methods based on these findings, we examined the effect of the JAK kinase inhibitor CP-690550 and an anti-IL12/23 monoclonal antibody on an I/R model. CP-690550 efficiently inhibited IL-17 production from memory T cells in vitro and partly suppressed infarct volume increase after I/R. Anti-p40 antibody, which blocks both IL-12 and IL-23, efficiently suppressed I/R injury and improved recovery of neurological deficits. The number of IL-17-producing cells was decreased by anti-p40 antibody treatment. Thus the JAK inhibitor and anti-p40 antibody, both of which have already been under trial for the treatment of several human inflammatory diseases, appear to be promising therapeutic agents for the amelioration of stroke. © 2010 Elsevier Inc.

Foxp3+ regulatory T (Treg) cells maintain immune homeostasis by limiting different types of inflammatory responses. Here, we report that miR-146a, one of the miRNAs prevalently expressed in Treg cells, is critical for their suppressor function. The deficiency of miR-146a in Treg cells resulted in a breakdown of immunological tolerance manifested in fatal IFNγ-dependent immune-mediated lesions in a variety of organs. This was likely due to augmented expression and activation of signal transducer and activator transcription 1 (Stat1), a direct target of miR-146a. Likewise, heightened Stat1 activation in Treg cells subjected to a selective ablation of SOCS1, a key negative regulator of Stat1 phosphorylation downstream of the IFNγ receptor, was associated with analogous Th1-mediated pathology. Our results suggest that specific aspects of Treg suppressor function are controlled by a single miRNA and that an optimal range of Stat1 activation is important for Treg-mediated control of Th1 responses and associated autoimmunity. © 2010 Elsevier Inc.