論文

© 2018, The Author(s). Neural connectivity has recently been shown to be altered after spinal cord injury (SCI) not only in the spinal cord but also in the brain. However, to date, no studies have analyzed the functional alterations after SCI in various areas of the cerebral cortex over time. To examine the plasticity of the neural connectivity in the brain after SCI, we performed resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) in awake adult mice pre- and post-SCI. After a complete thoracic SCI, the functional connectivity between the primary motor (MOp) and primary sensory (SSp) areas was significantly decreased during the chronic phase. In contrast, the connectivity between the MOp and motivation area was increased. Thus, impairments in sensory and motor connections after SCI led to a time-dependent compensatory upregulation of “motor functional motivation”. Moreover, the functional connectivity between the SSp and pain-related areas, such as the caudoputamen (CP) and the anterior cingulate area (ACA), was strengthened during the chronic phase, thus suggesting that rs-fMRI can indicate the presence of neuropathic pain after SCI. Therefore, rs-fMRI is a useful tool for revealing the pathological changes that occur in the brain after SCI.

© 2018 The Authors Stem Cells published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of AlphaMed Press There have been numerous attempts to develop stem cell transplantation approaches to promote the regeneration of spinal cord injury (SCI). Our multicenter team is currently planning to launch a first-in-human clinical study of an induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-based cell transplant intervention for subacute SCI. This trial was conducted as class I regenerative medicine protocol as provided for under Japan's Act on the Safety of Regenerative Medicine, using neural stem/progenitor cells derived from a clinical-grade, integration-free human “iPSC stock” generated by the Kyoto University Center for iPS Cell Research and Application. In the present article, we describe how we are preparing to initiate this clinical study, including addressing the issues of safety and tumorigenesis as well as practical problems that must be overcome to enable the development of therapeutic interventions for patients with chronic SCI. Stem Cells 2019;37:6–13.

Nogo receptor-1 (NgR1) signaling is involved in the limitation of axonal regeneration following spinal cord injury (SCI) through collapsing the growth cone and inhibiting neurite outgrowth. Lateral olfactory tract usher substance (LOTUS), a NgR antagonist, suppresses these pathological conditions. A previous report demonstrated the positive effects of LOTUS expression on motor function through raphespinal tract regeneration using pan-neuronally LOTUS-overexpressing transgenic mice. However, this report used a hemi-section model, which does not represent the majority of clinical SCI cases, and lacked a detailed histological analysis of other descending tracts. To determine the true therapeutic effects of LOTUS, we used a more clinically relevant contusive SCI model in female transgenic mice. Definitive tracing analyses revealed that LOTUS promoted the extensive regeneration of the reticulospinal tract across the lesion site and suppressed axonal dieback of corticospinal tract (CST). A significant increase in raphespinal tract fibers was seen from the subacute to the chronic phase after the injury, strongly suggesting that LOTUS promoted translesional elongation of this tract. Furthermore, histological analyses revealed that LOTUS had a neuroprotective effect on the injured spinal cord through suppressing cellular apoptosis during the acute phase. These neuroprotective and regenerative effects contributed to significant motor functional recovery and restoration of the motor evoked potential (MEP). Therefore, LOTUS application could prove beneficial in the treatment of SCI by promoting axonal regeneration of some descending fibers, reducing axonal dieback of CST fibers and encouraging motor function recovery.

© Copyright 2018, Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., publishers 2018. Progress in regenerative medicine is realizing the possibility of neural regeneration and functional recovery in spinal cord injury (SCI). Recently, rehabilitation has attracted much attention with respect to the synergistic promotion of functional recovery in combination with neural stem/progenitor cell (NS/PC) transplantation, even in the chronic refractory phase of SCI. Nevertheless, sensory disturbance is one of the most prominent sequelae, even though the effects of combination or single therapies have been investigated mostly in the context of motor recovery. To determine how combination therapy with treadmill training (TMT) and NS/PC transplantation affects the manifestation of thermal allodynia and tactile hyperalgesia in chronic phase SCI, four groups of SCI mice were used to assess pain-related behavior and histological changes: combined transplantation and TMT therapy, transplantation only, TMT only, and control groups. Thermal allodynia and coarse touch-pressure hyperalgesia exhibited significant recovery in the combined therapy group in comparison with controls, whereas there were no significant differences with fine touch-pressure hyperalgesia and motor function. Further investigation revealed fewer fibers remaining in the posterior funiculus, which contained the tracts associated with the two modalities showing less recovery; that is, touch-pressure hyperalgesia and motor function. A significant correlation was only observed between these two modalities. Although no remarkable histological recovery was found within the lesion epicenter, changes indicating amelioration of pain were observed in the lumbar enlargement of the combination therapy group. Our results suggest that amelioration of thermal allodynia and tactile hyperalgesia can be brought about by the additive effect of NS/PC transplantation and TMT. The degree of recovery seems dependent on the distribution of damage.

© 2018 The Authors In this article, Okano and colleagues show that the GSI-treated hiPSC-NS/PCs caused significantly enhanced axonal regrowth, remyelination, inhibitory synapse formation with the host neural circuitry, and reticulo spinal tract fiber formation. These favorable outcomes contributed to motor function improvement. Therefore, treating cells with GSI provides a beneficial effect after transplantation, even in the chronic phase following SCI.

The supraspinal inputs play a major role in tuning the hindlimb locomotion function. While most research on spinal cord injury (SCI) with rodents is based on thoracic segments, the difference in connectivity of the supraspinal centers to the thoracic and lumbar cord is still unknown. Here, we combined retrograde tracing and 3D imaging to map the connectivity of supraspinal neurons projecting to thoracic (T9-vertebral) and lumbar (T13-vertebral) spinal levels in adult female mice. We dissected the difference in connections of corticospinal neurons (CSNs), rubrospinal neurons, and reticulospinal neurons projecting to thoracic and lumbar cords. The ratio of double-labeled neurons is higher in T13-vertebral projection CSNs and parvocellular part of the red nucleus (RPC) than in T9-vertebral projection. Using the Cre-DIO system, we precisely targeted CSNs projecting to T9-vertebral or T13-vertebral. We found that abundant axon branches communicated with the red nucleus and reticular formation and distributed from cervical gray matter to the lumbar cord. Their collateral branches showed a distinct innervation pattern in thoracic and lumbar gray matters and a similar distribution pattern in the cervical spinal cord. These results revealed the difference in connectivity between the thoracic and lumbar projection supraspinal centers and clarified the collateralization of thoracic/lumbar projection CSNs throughout the brain and spinal cord. This study highlights brain-spinal cord neural networks and the complexity of the axon terminals of spinal projection CSNs, which could contribute to the development of targeted therapeutic strategies connecting CST fibers and hindlimb function recovery. (Figure presented.) Cover Image for this issue: https://doi.org/10.1111/jnc.15414.

Expectations for neural stem/progenitor cell (NS/PC) transplantation as a treatment for spinal cord injury (SCI) are increasing. However, whether and how grafted cells are incorporated into the host neural circuit and contribute to motor function recovery remain unknown. The aim of this project was to establish a novel non-invasive in vivo imaging system to visualize the activity of neural grafts by which we can simultaneously demonstrate the circuit-level integration between the graft and host and the contribution of graft neuronal activity to host behaviour. We introduced Akaluc, a newly engineered luciferase, under the control of enhanced synaptic activity-responsive element (E-SARE), a potent neuronal activity-dependent synthetic promoter, into NS/PCs and engrafted the cells into SCI model mice. Through the use of this system, we found that the activity of grafted cells was integrated with host behaviour and driven by host neural circuit inputs. This non-invasive system is expected to help elucidate the therapeutic mechanism of cell transplantation treatment for SCI.

Cell-based therapy targeting spinal cord injury (SCI) is an attractive approach to promote functional recovery by replacing damaged tissue. We and other groups have reported the effectiveness of transplanting neural stem/progenitor cells (NS/PCs) derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) in SCI animal models for neuronal replacement. Glial replacement is an additional approach for tissue repair; however, the lack of robust procedures to drive iPSCs into NS/PCs which can produce glial cells has hindered the development of glial cell transplantation for the restoration of neuronal functions after SCI. Here, we established a method to generate NS/PCs with gliogenic competence (gNS/PCs) optimized for clinical relevance and utilized them as a source of therapeutic NS/PCs for SCI. We could successfully generate gNS/PCs from clinically relevant hiPSCs, which efficiently produced astrocytes and oligodendrocytes in vitro. We also performed comparison between gNS/PCs and neurogenic NS/PCs based on single cell RNA-seq analysis and found that gNS/PCs were distinguished by expression of several transcription factors including HEY2 and NFIB. After gNS/PC transplantation, the graft did not exhibit tumor-like tissue formation, indicating the safety of them as a source of cell therapy. Importantly, the gNS/PCs triggered functional recovery in an SCI animal model, with remyelination of demyelinated axons and improved motor function. Given the inherent safety of gNS/PCs and favorable outcomes observed after their transplantation, cell-based medicine using the gNS/PCs-induction procedure described here together with clinically relevant iPSCs is realistic and would be beneficial for SCI patients.

Background: The spatial complexity of neuronal circuits in the central nervous system is a hurdle in understanding and treating brain and spinal cord injury (SCI). Although several methods have recently been developed to render the spinal cord transparent and label specific neural circuits, three-dimensional visualization of long segments of spinal cord with high resolution remains challenging for SCI researchers. New Method: We present a method that combines tissue staining of neuronal tracts traced with biotinylated dextran amine (BDA) and a modified passive clarity clearing protocol to describe individual fibers in long segments of mouse spinal cord. Results: Corticospinal tract was traced with BDA with a mouse model of thoracic spinal cord injury. The spinal cord was stained and cleared in two weeks with four solutions: staining solution, hydrogel solution, clearing solution, and observation solution. The samples were observed with a light-sheet microscope, and three-dimensional reconstruction was performed with ImageJ software. High resolution-images comparable with tissue sections were obtained continuously and circumferentially. By tiling, it was possible to obtain high-resolution images of long segments of the spinal cord. The tissue could be easily re-stained in case of fading. Comparison with existing methods: The present method does not require special equipment such as vacuum devices, can label specific circuits without genetic technology, and re-staining rounds can be easily implemented. Conclusions: By using simple neural staining and clearing methods, it was possible to acquire a wide range of high-resolution three-dimensional images of the spinal cord.

The transplantation of neural progenitor cells (NPCs) derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) has beneficial effects on spinal cord injury (SCI). However, while there are many subtypes of NPCs with different regional identities, the subtype of iPSC-derived NPCs that is most appropriate for cell therapy for SCI has not been identified. Here, we generated forebrain- and spinal cord-type NPCs from human iPSCs and grafted them onto the injured spinal cord in mice. These two types of NPCs retained their regional identities after transplantation and exhibited different graft-host interconnection properties. NPCs with spinal cord regional identity but not those with forebrain identity resulted in functional improvement in SCI mice, especially in those with mild-to-moderate lesions. This study highlights the importance of the regional identity of human iPSC-derived NPCs used in cell therapy for SCI.

Stem cell-based regenerative therapy has opened an avenue for functional recovery of patients with spinal cord injury (SCI). Regenerative rehabilitation is attracting wide attention owing to its synergistic effects, feasibility, non-invasiveness, and diverse and systemic properties. In this review article, we summarize the features of rehabilitation, describe the mechanism of combinatorial treatment, and discuss regenerative rehabilitation in the context of SCI. Although conventional rehabilitative methods have commonly been implemented alone, especially in studies of acute-to-subacute SCI, the combinatorial effects of intensive and advanced methods, including various neurorehabilitative approaches, have also been reported. Separating the concept of combined rehabilitation from regenerative rehabilitation, we suggest that the main roles of regenerative rehabilitation can be categorized as conditioning/reconditioning, functional training, and physical exercise, all of which are indispensable for enhancing functional recovery achieved using stem cell therapies.

Glioblastoma is characterized by diffuse infiltration into the normal brain. Invasive glioma stem cells (GSCs) are an underlying cause of treatment failure. Despite the use of multimodal therapies, the prognosis remains dismal. New therapeutic approach targeting invasive GSCs is required. Here, we show that neural stem cells (NSCs) derived from CRISRP/Cas9-edited human-induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) expressing a suicide gene had higher tumor-trophic migratory capacity compared with mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), leading to marked in vivo antitumor effects. High migratory capacity in iPSC-NSCs was related to self-repulsive action and pathotropism involved in EphB-ephrinB and CXCL12-CXCR4 signaling. The gene insertion to ACTB provided higher and stable transgene expression than other common insertion sites, such as GAPDH or AAVS1. Ferroptosis was associated with enhanced antitumor immune responses. The thymidylate synthase and dihydroprimidine dehydrogenase expressions predicted the treatment efficacy of therapeutic hiPSC-NSCs. Our results indicate the potential benefit of genome-edited iPS cells based gene therapy for invasive GSCs. Furthermore, the present research concept may become a platform to promote clinical studies using hiPSC.

The development of tissue clearing technologies allows 3D imaging of whole tissues and organs, especially in studies of the central nervous system innervated throughout the body. Although the three-dimensional imaging of solvent-cleared organs (3DISCO) method provides a powerful clearing capacity and high transparency, the rapid quenching of endogenous fluorescence and peroxide removal process decreases its practicability. This study provides a modified method named tDISCO to solve these limitations. The tDISCO protocol can preserve AAV-transduced endogenous EGFP fluorescence for months and achieve high transparency in a fast and simple clearing process. In addition to the brain, tDISCO was applied to other organs and even hard bone tissue. tDISCO also enabled us to visualize the long projection neurons and axons with high resolution. This method provides a fast and simple clearing protocol for 3D visualization of the AAV- transduced long projection neurons throughout the brain and spinal cord.

In cell transplantation therapy for spinal cord injury (SCI), grafted human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neural stem/progenitor cells (hiPSC-NS/PCs) mainly differentiate into neurons, forming synapses in a process similar to neurodevelopment. In the developing nervous system, the activity of immature neurons has an important role in constructing and maintaining new synapses. Thus, we investigate how enhancing the activity of transplanted hiPSC-NS/PCs affects both the transplanted cells themselves and the host tissue. We find that chemogenetic stimulation of hiPSC-derived neural cells enhances cell activity and neuron-to-neuron interactions in vitro. In a rodent model of SCI, consecutive and selective chemogenetic stimulation of transplanted hiPSC-NS/PCs also enhances the expression of synapse-related genes and proteins in surrounding host tissues and prevents atrophy of the injured spinal cord, thereby improving locomotor function. These findings provide a strategy for enhancing activity within the graft to improve the efficacy of cell transplantation therapy for SCI.

Rodent models are commonly used to understand the underlying mechanisms of spinal cord injury (SCI). Kinematic analysis, an important technique to measure dysfunction of locomotion after SCI, is generally based on the capture of physical markers placed on bony landmarks. However, marker-based studies face significant experimental hurdles such as labor-intensive manual joint tracking, alteration of natural gait by markers, and skin error from soft tissue movement on the knee joint. Although the pose estimation strategy using deep neural networks can solve some of these issues, it remains unclear whether this method is adaptive to SCI mice with abnormal gait. In the present study, we developed a deep learning based markerless method of 2D kinematic analysis to automatically track joint positions. We found that a relatively small number (< 200) of manually labeled video frames was sufficient to train the network to extract trajectories. The mean test error was on average 3.43 pixels in intact mice and 3.95 pixels in SCI mice, which is comparable to the manual tracking error (3.15 pixels, less than 1 mm). Thereafter, we extracted 30 gait kinematic parameters and found that certain parameters such as step height and maximal hip joint amplitude distinguished intact and SCI locomotion.

Every year, 0.93 million people worldwide suffer from spinal cord injury (SCI) with irre-trievable sequelae. Rehabilitation, currently the only available treatment, does not restore damaged tissues; therefore, the functional recovery of patients remains limited. The pathophysiology of spinal cord injuries is heterogeneous, implying that potential therapeutic targets differ depending on the time of injury onset, the degree of injury, or the spinal level of injury. In recent years, despite a significant number of clinical trials based on various types of stem cells, these aspects of injury have not been effectively considered, resulting in difficult outcomes of trials. In a specialty such as can-cerology, precision medicine based on a patient’s characteristics has brought indisputable therapeutic advances. The objective of the present review is to promote the development of precision medicine in the field of SCI. Here, we first describe the multifaceted pathophysiology of SCI, with the temporal changes after injury, the characteristics of the chronic phase, and the subtypes of complete injury. We then detail the appropriate targets and related mechanisms of the different types of stem cell therapy for each pathological condition. Finally, we highlight the great potential of stem cell therapy in cervical SCI.

Transplantation of neural stem/progenitor cells (NS/PCs) derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) is considered to be a promising therapy for spinal cord injury (SCI) and will soon be translated to the clinical phase. However, how grafted neuronal activity influences functional recovery has not been fully elucidated. Here, we show the locomotor functional changes caused by inhibiting the neuronal activity of grafted cells using a designer receptor exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADD). In vitro analyses of inhibitory DREADD (hM4Di)-expressing cells demonstrated the precise inhibition of neuronal activity via administration of clozapine N-oxide. This inhibition led to a significant decrease in locomotor function in SCI mice with cell transplantation, which was exclusively observed following the maturation of grafted neurons. Furthermore, trans-synaptic tracing revealed the integration of graft neurons into the host motor circuitry. These results highlight the significance of engrafting functionally competent neurons by hiPSC-NS/PC transplantation for sufficient recovery from SCI.

Rehabilitative treatment, including treadmill training, is considered an important strategy for restoring motor function after spinal cord injury (SCI). However, many unexplained problems persist regarding the appropriate rehabilitative method and the mechanism underlying the beneficial effects of rehabilitation. Moreover, only a few preclinical studies have been performed on rehabilitative interventions for chronic SCI, although most patients have chronic injuries. In fact, several preclinical studies reported that rehabilitative training was less effective when applied during the chronic phase than when applied sooner. While numerous studies have examined the effects of treadmill training during the subacute phase, the training conditions vary considerably among preclinical reports. Therefore, establishing a standard training protocol is essential for achieving beneficial rehabilitation effects at the chronic stage. Since the difficulty of applying an appropriate training load hinders training at constant speeds, it is important to adjust the training intensity in accordance with the exercise tolerance of an individual animal to provide further functional recovery benefits. Here, we created a novel quadrupedal treadmill training protocol based on the overload principle for mice with incomplete thoracic SCI. We subjected SCI model mice to rehabilitative training according to the protocol for two consecutive weeks starting at 42 days after injury. We examined the treadmill speeds at which the mice were able to run based on the severity of paresis and investigated the impact of the protocol on functional recovery. Assessment of running speed changes during the treadmill training period revealed faster treadmill speeds for mice with mild paresis than for those with severe paresis. The training parameters, including the speed and distance traveled, were positively correlated with the changes in motor function. These results suggest that the most suitable running speed during treadmill training differs according to the level of motor dysfunction and that running longer distances has a positive impact on motor functional recovery. Based on this established protocol, we compared functional and histological results between the chronic SCI groups with and without rehabilitation. The gait analyses showed significantly better functional improvement in the rehabilitation group than in the nonrehabilitation group. Histological analyses revealed that the BDNF- and VGLUT1-positive areas of lumbar enlargement were significantly increased in the rehabilitation group. These findings implied that rehabilitation promoted not only motor performance but also motor control, including forelimb-hindlimb coordination, even in chronic SCI, resulting in functional improvement by treadmill training alone. Therefore, rehabilitative training based on the overload principle appears to be one of the appropriate treatment options for incomplete thoracic SCI, and evidence of its efficacy exists in actual clinical settings.

Spinal cord injury (SCI) leads to locomotor dysfunction. Locomotor rehabilitation promotes the recovery of stepping ability in lower mammals, but it has limited efficacy in humans with a severe SCI. To explain this discrepancy between different species, a nonhuman primate rehabilitation model with a severe SCI would be useful. In this study, we developed a rehabilitation model of paraplegia caused by a severe traumatic SCI in a nonhuman primate, common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). The locomotor rating scale for marmosets was developed to accurately assess the recovery of locomotor functions in marmosets. All animals showed flaccid paralysis of the hindlimb after a thoracic contusive SCI, but the trained group showed significant locomotor recovery. Kinematic analysis revealed significantly improved hindlimb stepping patterns in trained marmosets. Furthermore, intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) of the motor cortex evoked the hindlimb muscles in the trained group, suggesting the reconnection between supraspinal input and the lumbosacral network. Because rehabilitation may be combined with regenerative interventions such as medicine or cell therapy, this primate model can be used as a preclinical test of therapies that can be used in human clinical trials.

Glioblastoma exhibits phenotypic and genetic heterogeneity, aggressive invasiveness, therapeutic resistance, and tumor recurrence, which can be explained by the existence of glioma stem cells (GSCs). In this study, we visualized the spatiotemporal dynamics of invasion of human GSCs in an orthotopic xenograft mouse model using time-lapse imaging of organotypic brain slice cultures and three-dimensional imaging of optically cleared whole brains. GSCs implanted in the striatum exhibited directional migration toward axon bundles, perivascular area, and the subventricular zone around the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle. GSCs migrated in a helical pattern around axon bundles in the striatum and invaded broadly in both the rostral and caudal directions. GSCs in the corpus callosum migrated more rapidly and unidirectionally toward the contralateral side with pseudopod extension. These characteristics of GSC invasion shared histological features observed in glioblastoma patients. Spatiotemporal visualization techniques can contribute to the elucidation of the mechanisms underlying GSC invasion that may lead to the development of effective therapy for glioblastoma.