論文

Notch (N) signaling is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism that regulates many cell-fate decisions. deltex (dx) encodes an E3-ubiquitin ligase that binds to the intracellular domain of N and positively regulates N signaling. However, the precise mechanism of Dx action is unknown. Here, we found that Dx was required and sufficient to activate the expression of gene targets of the canonical Su(H)-dependent N signaling pathway. Although Dx required N and a cis-acting element that overlaps with the Su(H)-binding site, Dx activated a target enhancer of N signaling, the dorsoventral compartment boundary enhancer of vestigial (vgBE), in a manner that was independent of the Delta (DI)/Serrate (Ser) ligands- or Su(H). Dx caused N to be moved from the apical cell surface into the late-endosome, where it accumulated stably and co-localized with Dx. Consistent with this, the dx gene was required for the presence of N in the endocytic vesicles. Finally, blocking the N transportation from the plasma membrane to the late-endosome by a dominant-negative form of Rab5 inhibited the Dx-mediated activation of N signaling, suggesting that the accumulation of N in the late-endosome was required for the Dx-mediated Su(H)-independent N signaling.

Retinoic acid (RA) is one of the most important morphogens, and its embryonic distribution correlates with neural differentiation and positional specification in the developing central nervous system. To investigate the concentration-dependent effects of RA on neural differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells (ES cells), we investigated the precise expression profiles of neural and regional specific genes by ES cells aggregated into embryoid bodies (EBs) exposed to various concentrations of RA or the BMP antagonist Noggin. RA promoted both neural differentiation and caudalization in a concentration-dependent manner, and the concentration of RA was found to regulate dorso-ventral identity, i.e., higher concentrations of RA induced a dorsal phenotype, and lower concentrations of RA induced a more ventral phenotype. The induction of the more ventral phenotype was due to the higher expression level of the N-terminus of sonic hedgehog protein (Shh-N) when treated with low concentration RA, as it was abrogated by an inhibitor of Shh signaling, cyclopamine. These findings suggest that the concentration of RA strictly and simultaneously regulates the neuralization and positional specification during differentiation of mouse ES cells and that it may be possible to use it to establish a strategy for controlling the identity of ES-cell-derived neural cells. © 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

OBJECTIVE: The origin of brain tumors has attracted much controversy. Recent advances in neural stem cell biology coupled with the new concepts of central nervous system development have raised interesting possibilities regarding the oncogenic properties of neural stem/progenitor cells. To elucidate these putative properties further, the clinical materials from an infant brain tumor were analyzed, focusing on the relation with the neural stem/progenitor cells. METHODS: The expression of neural stem/progenitor cell markers in the tumor cells and the cellular components of the infant brain tumor were examined using immunohistochemistry. The tumor cell biology was analyzed both in culture and in the grafted brain environment. RESULTS: Three main bodies of evidence were demonstrated indicating that the tumor was of possible subventricular zone postnatal or adult normal neural stem cell origin. First, in the tumor specimen we demonstrated the strong positive expression of the neural stem/progenitor cell markers, nestin and Musashi-1. Second, immunohistochemistry revealed the presence of neuronal, astrocytic, and immature precursor cells in the tumor tissue, similar to the cellular components of the subventricular zone, thereby pointing to the subventricular zone as the possible origin of the tumor. The subventricular zone also is one of the strong candidates for the location of postnatal/adult neural stem cells. This cellular evidence was strengthened further by the clinicoradiological findings that demonstrated the involvement of the subventricular zone of the lateral ventricle by the tumor. Third, in the in vitro and in vivo experiments, a dynamic shift in expression patterns between neural stem cells (nestin, Musashi-1) and differentiated cells (glial fibrillary acidic protein, neuron-specific Class III β-tubulin) markers was seen, similar to the proposed behavior of postnatal/adult neural stem cells in situ. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that this brain tumor originated from neural stem cells located in the subventricular zone, and the further possibility of the general oncogenic potential of neural stem cells.

Transplantation of human neural stem cells (NSCs) is a promising potential therapy for neurologic dysfunctions after the hyperacute stage of stroke in humans, but large amounts of human NSCs must be expanded in long-term culture for such therapy. To determine their possible therapeutic potential for human stroke, human fetal neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) (i.e., neurosphere-forming cells) were isolated originally from forebrain tissues of one human fetus, and expanded in long-term neurosphere culture (exceeding 24 weeks), then xenografted into the lesioned areas in the brains of Mongolian gerbils 4 days after focal ischemia. Sensorimotor and cognitive functions were evaluated during the 4 weeks after transplantation. The total infarction volume in the NSPC-grafted animals was significantly lower than that in controls. Approximately 8% of the grafted NSPCs survived, mainly in areas of selective neuronal death, and were costained with antibodies against neuronal nuclei antibody (NeuN), microtubule associated protein (MAP-2), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), and anti-2′3′ cyclic nucleotide 3′-phosphodiesterase (CNPase). Synaptic structures between NSPCs-derived neurons and host neurons were observed. Furthermore, gradual improvement of neurologic functions was observed clearly in the NSPC-grafted animals, compared to that in controls. Human NSPCs, even from long-term culture, remarkably improved neurologic functions after focal ischemia in the Mongolian gerbil, and maintained their abilities to migrate around the infarction, differentiate into mature neurons, and form synapses with host neuronal circuits. These results indicate that in vitro-expanded human neurosphere cells are a potential source for transplantable material for treatment of stroke. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Previous studies from our laboratory showed that human amnion epithelial cells (AECs) have multiple functions, such as synthesis and release of catecholamines, acetylcholine, neurotrophic factors, activin, and noggin. In this study, we investigated the identity of neural progenitor cells in human amnion mesenchyme cells (AMCs), which lie immediately adjacent to the AECs. Cryostat sections revealed that vimentin expression was detected in the AMCs and CK19 in AECs. Vimentin-positive cells made up 97.5% of total cells tested in cultured AMCs. Interestingly, 3.6% of total AMCs expressed the phenotype CK19+/vimentin +, indicating coexpression of epithelial and mesenchyme cell markers. In culturing with bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) for 24 hr, 66-82% of cells were found to be BrdU positive, suggesting that they have proliferating potency. By using RT-PCR, AMCs express mRNA of nestin and Musashi1. With a neural cell differentiating protocol, cell bodies extended long bipolar or complex multipolar processes. Nestin (87.7% of total cells tested) and Musashi1 (93.1%) were expressed in undifferentiated cells, and their positively stained cells increased in number slightly after induction. Undifferentiated cells were stained by anti-Tuj1 and NF-M, and their positively stained cells increased significantly in number after induction, to 72.8% and 46.0%, respectively. Meanwhile, glial fibrillary acidic protein-positive cells increased from 25.4% to 43.2% after induction. These studies demonstrate that AMCs have phenotypes of neuroglial progenitor cells and can be differentiated into neuroglial phenotypes by optimal differentiation protocol. Eventually, AMC-derived stem cells may be a favorable cell vehicle in regenerative medicine. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Notch1 plays various important roles including the maintenance of the stem cell state as well as the promotion of glial fates in mammalian CNS development. However, because of the very low amount of the activated form of Notch1 present in vivo, its precise activation pattern has remained unknown. In this study, we mapped the active state of this signaling pathway in situ in the developing mouse brain using a specific antibody that recognizes the processed form of the intracellular domain of Notch1 cleaved by presenilin/γ-secretase activity. By using this antibody, active state of Notch1 came to be detectable with a higher sensitivity than using conventional antibody against Notch1. We found that activated Notch1 was mainly detected in the nuclei of a subpopulation of radial glial cells, the majority of proliferating precursor cells in the ventricular zone (VZ). However, Notch1 activation was not detected in neuronal precursor cells positive for neuronal basic helix-loop-helix proteins or in differentiating neurons in the embryonic forebrain. Interestingly, we found that Notch1 was transiently activated in the astrocytic lineage during perinatal CNS development. Taken together, the present method has enabled us to determine the timing, gradients, and boundaries of the activation of Notch signaling.

We previously described two isoforms (MOVO-A and -B) of a novel zinc finger protein MOVO, a mouse homologue of Drosophila Ovo protein. Here, we isolated cDNA encoding the third isoform MOVO-C, which had a transactivation domain and zinc finger domain, but lacked an N-terminal potential repression domain that was present in MOVO-A. Three isoform mRNAs were expressed highly in mouse testis and also in the ovary at lower levels. The structural analyses of the isolated Movo gene and mRNAs demonstrated that three different Movo transcripts were differentially processed to generate three isoforms. Major mRNA species encoded MOVO-B with a zinc finger domain alone, and minor mRNA species encoded MOVO-A (potential repressor) and MOVO-C (potential activator). To assign MOVO to a transcriptional factor, we characterized DNA-binding and transactivation properties. Random oligonucleotide selection, electrophoretic mobility shift assay and footprinting indicated that MOVO bound to the sequence, 5′-G(G/C/T)GGGGG-3′. These motifs were found in the 5′-flanking regions of Movo and other testis-specific genes. Nuclear proteins binding to this motif were detected in mouse testis, and the expression of MOVO mRNA was restricted in spermatocytes. The luciferase assay demonstrated that MOVO-C activated Movo promoter and MOVO-A repressed it, but MOVO-B had no effects. Mutated MOVO-binding motifs in the Movo promoter reduced the luciferase activity. All the isoforms had no effects on SV40 promoter without MOVO-binding motifs. MOVO-A partially rescued oogenesis of a Drosophila ovo mutant. These results suggest that MOVO isoforms are transcription factors to regulate genes carrying the MOVO-binding motifs in the testis. © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) has been known to inhibit the differentiation of presumptive rod photoreceptor cells; however, the underlying mechanisms have remained to be elucidated. We demonstrated that STAT3 activation, but not SHP2 activation, is responsible for the CNTF/gp130 signaling that inhibits expression of Rhodopsin and its upstream activator, crx, in the retinal explants derived from P0 mice (P0 retinal explants), utilizing STAT3-deficient retina and electroporation of dominant-negative form of STAT3 (STAT3F). We also demonstrated that STAT3 activation in presumptive rod photoreceptor cells at E18.5 is rapidly downregulated at P0, when Rhodopsin expression starts during retinal development. Persistent STAT3 activation in the P0 retinal explants prevented Rhodopsin expression and rapid upregulation of crx expression. STAT3-deficient retinas did not exhibit precocious rod photoreceptor cell differentiation as a whole, although they occasionally exhibited precocious upregulation of crx mRNA. Thus, we conclude that downregulation of STAT3 activation is required, but insufficient, for rod photoreceptor cell differentiation in the postnatal retina. © 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Embryonic stem (ES) cells differentiate into dopamine (DA)-producing neurons when co-cultured with PA6 stromal cells, but the resulting cultures contain a variety of unidentified cells. In order to label live DA neurons in mixed populations, we introduced a GFP reporter under the control of the tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) gene promoter into ES cells. GFP expression was observed in TH-immunoreactive cells that differentiated from the ES cells that carried the TH-GFPreporter gene. DA neurons expressing GFP were sorted from the mixed cell population by fluorescence-activated cell sorting of cells exhibiting GFP fluorescence, and the sorted GFP+ cells obtained were transplanted into a rat model of Parkinson's disease. Some of these cells survived and innervated the host striatum, resulting in a partial recovery from parkinsonian behavioral defects. This strategy of isolation and transplantation of ES-cell-derived DA neurons should be useful for cellular and molecular studies of DA neurons and for clinical application in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. © 2004 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

We report a treatment for spinal cord injury involving implantation of dendritic cells (DCs), which act as antigen-presenting cells in the immune system. The novel mechanisms underlying this treatment produce functional recovery. Among the immune cells tested, DCs showed the strongest activity inducing proliferation and survival of neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) in vitro. Furthermore, in DC-implanted adult mice, endogenous NSPCs in the injured spinal cord were activated for mitotic de novo neurogenesis. These DCs produced neurotrophin-3 and activated endogenous microglia in the injured spinal cord. Behavioral analysis revealed the locomotor functions of DC-implanted mice to have recovered significantly as compared to those of control mice. Our results suggest that DC-implantation exerts trophic effects, including activation of endogenous NSPCs, leading to repair of the injured adult spinal cord. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Musashil (Msi I) is an RNA binding protein associated with asymmetric cell divisions in neural progenitor cells.To investigate the involvement of MsiI in the inner ear development, we studied the expression of MsiI in mouse inner ears with RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry. Immunohistochemistry revealed that MsiI was expressed in all otocyst cells at embryonic day (E) 10 and 12. MsiI immunoreactivity became lost in hair cells after E14 in vestibule and after E16 in cochlea, whereas it persisted in supporting cells until adulthood. The subcellular localization of MsiI changed from "cytoplasmic predominance" to "nuclear predominance" during the first 2 weeks after birth. The present data suggested that Msi may play a role in inner ear development. © 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Endogenous neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) have recently been shown to differentiate exclusively into astrocytes, the cells that are involved in glial scar formation after spinal cord injury (SCI). The microenvironment of the spinal cord, especially the inflammatory cytokines that dramatically increase in the acute phase at the injury site, is considered to be an important cause of inhibitory mechanism of neuronal differentiation following SCI. Interleukin-6 (IL-6), which has been demonstrated to induce NSPCs to undergo astrocytic differentiation selectively through the JAK/STAT pathway in vitro, has also been demonstrated to play a critical role as a proinflammatory cytokine and to be associated with secondary tissue damage in SCI. In this study, we assessed the efficacy of rat anti-mouse IL-6 receptor monoclonal antibody (MR16-1) in the treatment of acute SCI in mice. Immediately after contusive SCI with a modified NYU impactor, mice were intraperitoneally injected with a single dose of MR16-1 (100 μg/g body weight), the lesions were assessed histologically, and the functional recovery was evaluated. MR16-1 not only suppressed the astrocytic diffentiation-promoting effect of IL-6 signaling in vitro but inhibited the development of astrogliosis after SCI in vivo. MR16-1 also decreased the number of invading inflammatory cells and the severity of connective tissue scar formation. In addition, we observed significant functional recovery in the mice treated with MR16-1 compared with control mice. These findings suggest that neutralization of IL-6 signaling in the acute phase of SCI represents an attractive option for the treatment of SCI. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Sox21, a high-mobility group box transcription factor, is expressed throughout the immature neural stem/progenitor population in ventricular zone but not in the cortical plate in embryonic mouse brain and its expression is restricted to the subventricular zone in the adult brain. In undifferentiated PC12 cells, endogenous Sox21 expression is detected but its expression ceases during the nerve growth factor (NGF)-induced neuronal differentiation. Overexpression of Sox21 results in a substantial repression of NGF-induced neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells. Further, we biochemically identified a Sox21-associating protein, Y-box binding protein 1 which not only binds to Sox21 but also partially restores NGF-induced neurite outgrowth of PC12 cells inhibited by Sox21. These results suggest that Sox21 is a repressor of neuronal differentiation in the developing nervous system. © 2004 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Musashi1 (Msi1) is an RNA-binding protein expressed in neural stem/progenitor cells, astroglial progenitor cells and astrocytes in the vertebrate central nervous system. We hypothesized that Msi1 is expressed in only some of the supporting cells in the cochlea, which could become hair cell progenitors under special circumstances after an injury. To observe this, we investigated Msi1 expression in young adult mouse cochlea by immunohistochemistry using monoclonal antibody against Msi1. Msi1 immunostaining was found in a variety of supporting cells but not in outer hair cells in the organ of Corti. Although an immunoreactive ring was found around the inner hair cells, it also seemed to originate from the supporting cells. We suppose that this wide expression of Msi1 in supporting cells indicates that those cells might have the potential to become hair cell progenitors if injured, but that some other mechanisms strictly inhibit this ability. © 2003 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Side population (SP) is reported to be a stem cell-rich population. In the presence of leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), cultured kidney SP cells differentiated into multi-lineage in collagen gel but not in synthesized polymer that has no cell adhesion factor. In cultured kidney SP cells, gene expression of kidney-specific cadherin 16 was specifically upregulated in collagen gel but not in synthesized polymer. Moreover, decreasing cadherin 16 expression using siRNA abolished LIF-induced multi-lineage differentiation of kidney SP in collagen gel. These results indicated that LIF induced multi-lineage differentiation of adult stem-like cells in kidney via cadherin 16. © 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.