論文

Context: In most patients with hypoparathyroidism (HP), the etiology is not defined clinically. Eight genes (AIRE, CASR, CLDN16, GATA3, GCM2, PTH, TBCE, and TRPM6) are known to be responsible genes associated with HP; however, no previous study has screened the eight responsible genes comprehensively in HP patients. Objectives: This study was conducted to determine the genetic defect in HP patients. We also described clinical and molecular findings of two HP patients with novel GCM2 mutations. Subjects and Methods: We enrolled 20 nonconsanguineous Japanese patients with child-onset permanent HP without 22q11 deletion. Mutations and genomic rearrangements involving the eight genes were screened by targeted next-generation sequencing (NGS). We also screened genetic rearrangements by array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH) in the mutation-negative patients. A putative deletion, which was suspected by NGS, was additionally analyzed by droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) and junction PCR. Identified novel nucleotide-level GCM2 mutants were characterized in vitro. Results: We identified seven patients with a single gene disorder, including a CASR mutation, GATA3 mutations, and novel GCM2 mutations (R367Tfs*15, T370M, and the deletion encompassing exon 1). This submicroscopic deletion, which had been suspected by NGS, could not be detected by aCGH and was confirmed by ddPCR and junction PCR. Functional studies of R367Tfs*- and T370M-GCM2 demonstrated a reduction of target gene transactivation in both. Conclusions: Using comprehensive NGS analyses, we identified the genetic defect in 35% of HP patients in our cohort and discovered novel GCM2 mutations including submicroscopic deletion that was undetectable by aCGH.

BACKGROUND: Mutations in causative genes for neonatal diabetes or maturity-onset diabetes of the young have been identified in multiple patients with autoantibody-negative type 1 diabetes (T1D). OBJECTIVES: We aimed to clarify the prevalence and phenotypic characteristics of monogenic abnormalities among 89 children with autoantibody-negative insulin-requiring T1D. METHODS: Mutations in 30 genes were screened using next-generation sequencing, and copy-number alterations of 4 major causative genes were examined using multiplex-ligation-dependent probe amplification. We compared the clinical characteristics between mutation carriers and non-carriers. RESULTS: We identified 11 probable pathogenic substitutions (6 in INS , 2 in HNF1A , 2 in HNF4A , and 1 in HNF1B ) in 11 cases, but no copy-number abnormalities. Only 2 mutation carriers had affected parents. De novo occurrence was confirmed for 3 mutations. The non-carrier group, but not the carrier group, was enriched with susceptible HLA alleles. Mutation carriers exhibited comparable phenotypes to those of non-carriers, except for a relatively normal body mass index (BMI) at diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrated significant genetic overlap between autoantibody-negative T1D and monogenic diabetes. Mutations in INS and HNF genes, but not those in GCK and other monogenic diabetes genes, likely play critical roles in children with insulin-requiring T1D. This study also suggests the relatively high de novo rates of INS and HNF mutations, and the etiological link between autoimmune abnormalities and T1D in the non-carrier group. Carriers of monogenic mutations show non-specific phenotypes among all T1D cases, although they are more likely to have a normal BMI at diagnosis than non-carriers.

Most patients with resistance to thyroid hormone (RTH) test negative in newborn screening (NBS) for congenital hypothyroidism (CH). Here, we present a case of RTH diagnosed through NBS. The patient presented to us after her NBS for CH revealed high TSH (23.4 µIU/mL) and free T4 (FT4) (5.40 ng/dL) levels. Apart from tachycardia, she exhibited no other manifestations related to excess or deficiency of thyroid hormones. A confirmatory test replicated the findings, showing elevated serum TSH levels (35.7 µIU/mL) along with high FT4 levels (5.84 ng/ dL). Ultrasonography showed marked thyroid gland enlargement (> +4 SD). Targeted next-generation sequencing of genes associated with genetic thyroid disorders revealed a previously reported THRB variant, p.Gly345Cys. Unexpectedly, two biallelic DUOX2 variants (p.His678Arg and p.Arg1334Trp) were also detected. At her last visit, no significant issues were observed with neurological development, growth, bone maturation, or gastrointestinal symptoms related to thyroid function at the age of 1 year, without treatment for RTH and CH. During follow-up, the TSH and FT4 levels gradually decreased. In conclusion, we report a patient with simultaneous RTH and DUOX2 defects, demonstrating the value of conducting a comprehensive analysis of multiple genes associated with thyroid diseases to better comprehend the pathogenesis in patients with atypical thyroid-related phenotypes.

CONTEXT: PAX8 is a transcription factor required for thyroid development, and its mutation causes congenital hypothyroidism (CH). More than 20 experimentally verified loss-of-function PAX8 mutations have been described, and all but one were located in the DNA-binding paired domain. OBJECTIVE: We report the identification and functional characterization of 3 novel truncating PAX8 mutations located outside the paired domain. METHODS: Three CH probands, diagnosed in the frame of newborn screening, had thyroid hypoplasia and were treated with levothyroxine. Next-generation sequencing-based mutation screening was performed. Functionality of the identified mutations were verified with Western blotting, intracellular localization assays, and transactivation assays with use of HeLa cells. Luciferase complementation assays were used to evaluate the effect of mutations on the interaction between PAX8 and its partner, NKX2-1. RESULTS: Each proband had novel truncating PAX8 mutations that were I160Sfs*52, Q213Efs*27, and F342Rfs*85. Western blotting showed destabilization of the I160fs-PAX8 protein. Q213fs-PAX8 and F342fs-PAX8 showed normal protein expression levels and normal nuclear localization, but showed loss of transactivation of the luciferase reporter. By luciferase complementation assays, we showed that PAX8-NKX2-1 interaction was defective in Q213fs-PAX8. We also characterized the recombinant PAX8 proteins, and found that the protein sequence corresponding to exon 10 (363-400 aa residues) was essential for the PAX8-NKX2-1 interaction. CONCLUSIONS: Clinical and molecular findings of 3 novel truncating PAX8 mutations located outside the paired domain were reported. Experiments using cultured cells and recombinant proteins showed that the C-terminal portion (ie, 363-400 aa) of PAX8 is required for the PAX8-NKX2-1 interaction.

Introduction: NK2 homeobox 1 (NKX2-1) encodes a transcription factor, NKX2-1, that is expressed in the thyroid gland, lung, and brain. Dual oxidase 2 (DUOX2) encodes an enzyme which generates hydrogen peroxide and is involved in the thyroid hormone synthesis. Cases of congenital hypothyroidism (CH) with dyshormonogenesis showing two or more genetic variants are increasingly reported. We describe the first case of transient dyshormonogenesis who had experimentally verified a loss-of-function NKX2-1 variant and DUOX2 variants. Case Presentation: The proband was a 15-year-old female patient with CH who was diagnosed in the frame of newborn screening for CH. She had a mildly elevated serum TSH level (14.56 mU/L), a low free thyroxine level (0.87 ng/dL), and a high thyroglobulin (Tg) level (>800 ng/mL). Ultrasonography revealed goiter. She was followed clinically without levothyroxine treatment and showed normal growth and development. She had slightly high Tg levels throughout the clinical course. Next-generation sequencing-based genetic analysis revealed that the patient was heterozygous for an NKX2-1 variant (p.Ile228Ser), a nonsense DUOX2 variant (p.[Lys530∗His678Arg]), and a functional DUOX2 polymorphism (p.His678Arg). NKX2-1 p.Ile228Ser showed about 50% reduced residual activity on the Tg promoter. Conclusion: A partial loss-of-function NKX2-1 variant with a monoallelic nonsense DUOX2 variant and a DUOX2 functional polymorphism can cause transient CH with high serum Tg levels.

Pituitary develops from oral ectoderm in contact with adjacent ventral hypothalamus. Impairment in this process results in congenital pituitary hypoplasia (CPH); however, there have been no human disease models for CPH thus far, prohibiting the elucidation of the underlying mechanisms. In this study, we established a disease model of CPH using patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and 3D organoid technique, in which oral ectoderm and hypothalamus develop simultaneously. Interestingly, patient iPSCs with a heterozygous mutation in the orthodenticle homeobox 2 (OTX2) gene showed increased apoptosis in the pituitary progenitor cells, and the differentiation into pituitary hormone-producing cells was severely impaired. As an underlying mechanism, OTX2 in hypothalamus, not in oral ectoderm, was essential for progenitor cell maintenance by regulating LHX3 expression in oral ectoderm via FGF10 expression in the hypothalamus. Convincingly, the phenotype was reversed by the correction of the mutation, and the haploinsufficiency of OTX2 in control iPSCs revealed a similar phenotype, demonstrating that this mutation was responsible. Thus, we established an iPSC-based congenital pituitary disease model, which recapitulated interaction between hypothalamus and oral ectoderm and demonstrated the essential role of hypothalamic OTX2.

Purpose: Nonautoimmune hypothyroidism is characterized by hypothyroidism and negative thyroid autoantibodies with limited knowledge of its clinical and genetic characteristics. The aim was to characterize the clinical and genetic features of nonautoimmune hypothyroidism. Methods: This retrospective study included 1470 treatment-naive adult hypothyroid patients (serum TSH >10 mU/L) born before 1979 and were followed up at Ito Hospital, Tokyo, Japan. Of these, 220 patients were diagnosed with idiopathic nonautoimmune hypothyroidism by thyroid autoantibody measurements. Sequencing of 13 genes associated with nonautoimmune hypothyroidism was performed of 101 of the 220 patients. Clinical characteristics, including thyroid function and morphology, were systematically evaluated. Results: The proportion of idiopathic nonautoimmune hypothyroidism among the 1470 patients with treatment-naive nontransient hypothyroidism was 15.0%. Idiopathic nonautoimmune hypothyroidism patients had lower serum TSH (17.0 vs 28.3 mU/L; P < .001), higher serum fT4 (11.5 vs 8.9 pmol/L; P < .001), and a smaller thyroid volume (13.4 vs 24.9 g; P < .001) than autoimmune hypothyroidism patients. Genetic analysis showed that 5.0% of the analyzed idiopathic nonautoimmune hypothyroidism patients had a Mendelian disorder, with PAX8 being the most commonly affected gene. An additional 19% of the analyzed patients carried monoallelic variants in hypothyroidism-associated genes, such as DUOX2, DUOXA2, SLC26A4, TG, TPO, and TSHR, that cause autosomal recessive genetic defects. Conclusion: In patients with treatment-naive adult nonautoimmune hypothyroidism, thyroid dysfunction was milder and thyroid volume was smaller than in patients with autoimmune hypothyroidism. Mendelian forms were rare, but the unexpectedly high frequency of monoallelic variant carriers suggests that these variants may confer genetic risk for nonautoimmune hypothyroidism.

Children with Down syndrome (DS) have a high prevalence of thyroid dysfunction; however, age-related changes in thyroid hormone profiles remain unclear. We investigated the age-related changes in thyroid function in children with DS. We retrospectively analyzed the thyroid function test results of 762 patients with DS aged 3–14 years without known thyroid disease, and compared them with those of 764 age-matched controls with idiopathic short stature. Serum thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), free triiodothyronine (FT3), and free thyroxine (FT4) levels and the FT3/FT4 ratio were compared between patients with DS with/without congenital heart disease (CHD) and gastrointestinal malformations. In each age group, the log-transformed TSH distribution exhibited similar standard deviation and kurtosis, but showed consistently higher mean values in patients with DS than in controls. Mean FT3 levels were slightly lower in the DS group, except at ages 11–12 years. Mean FT4 levels were slightly lower in the DS group after 9 years of age. The mean FT3/FT4 ratio was lower in the DS group at ages 3–8 years but normalized after 9 years of age. Patients with DS and CHD had higher TSH levels than those without CHD after 11 years of age, whereas FT3, FT4, and the FT3/FT4 ratio showed no significant differences. A rightward shift in serum TSH distribution was observed in patients with DS without thyroid disease, suggesting that TSH levels are generally high in patients with DS. These variations highlight the need for personalized management of thyroid function in patients with DS.

SLC26A7 encodes an apical iodide transporter in thyroid follicular cells and causes, when mutated, congenital hypothyroidism (CH). We report a patient diagnosed with goitrous CH, who initially presented with neck enlargement and inspiratory stridor on day 3 of life. Levothyroxine therapy resulted in prompt improvement in upper airway compression, and surgical interventions were avoided. The levothyroxine dosage per body weight was gradually reduced to 0.5 μg/kg/day by age 11 months. Genomic sequencing of CH-related genes identified compound heterozygous protein-truncating SLC26A7 variants: c.612_613dup, p.Ser207Tyrfs*31 and c.1498C>T, p.Gln500*. We emphasize the importance of considering genetic etiologies in cases of neonatal goiter with upper airway compression, particularly in the absence of exposure to excessive iodine or antithyroid drugs

Background: GATA2 deficiency, a syndrome caused by heterozygous loss-of-function variants in the GATA2 gene, is characterized by immunodeficiency, bone marrow failure, and predisposition to myeloid neoplasms. Its clinical presentation is highly variable, making early diagnosis challenging. Although GATA2 deficiency has been linked to systemic inflammation, gastrointestinal involvement mimicking inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is extremely rare. Case presentation: This report presented the case of two adolescent boys with no family history of novel heterozygous frameshift GATA2 variants. Notably, Patient 1 initially presented with clinical and endoscopic features strongly suggestive of Crohn’s disease, including weight loss, perianal abscess, and characteristic intestinal ulcers, before developing acute myeloid leukemia with monosomy 7. This is a rare presentation of GATA2 deficiency manifesting initially with Crohn’s disease-like symptoms. Patient 2 presented with intractable cutaneous warts and pancytopenia, later diagnosed as myelodysplastic syndrome with der(1;7)(q10;p10). Both patients harbored novel GATA2 frameshift variants predicted to eliminate the DNA-binding domain, suggesting a loss-of-function mechanism. Conclusion: These cases expand the phenotypic spectrum of GATA2 deficiency and highlight that atypical IBD-like symptoms, including Crohn’s disease-like presentations, may cause an initial manifestation. GATA2 deficiency should be considered in patients with IBD-like symptoms, refractory skin disorders, and hematological abnormalities. Early genetic testing and family screening are essential to ensuring timely diagnosis and curative hematopoietic stem cell transplantation before progression to advanced myeloid disease.

Disorders of sex development (DSD) with mild external genital abnormalities may be diagnosed after puberty. Here, we report a case of 46,XY complete gonadal dysgenesis with a novel missense variant in sex-determining region Y (SRY), diagnosed after primary amenorrhea. A 15-yr-old patient presented to our gynecology department with a chief complaint of amenorrhea. The patient was diagnosed with a 46,XY karyotype, and SRY gene positivity. Gonadotropin levels were high, whereas testosterone levels were low. A pelvic magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed a hypoplastic uterus; however, no gonads could be identified. Laparoscopy revealed bilateral streak gonads, fallopian tube-like structures, and the uterus. The gonads were removed based on the risk of gonadal malignancy. Comprehensive genetic analysis of DSD revealed a previously unreported SRY variant, c.271A>T, p.Ser91Cys, and in silico analysis predicted the variant to be pathogenic. The patient was diagnosed with 46,XY complete gonadal dysgenesis with a novel missense variant in SRY. The patient continued female hormone replacement therapy and experienced breast enlargement and cyclic menstruation. Determining the etiology of DSD can be difficult, causing anxiety in patients and their families. In addition to surgical scrutiny, genetic analysis is important to aid in diagnosis and reassure patients and their families.

Context: Luscan-Lumish syndrome (LLS) is characterized by postnatal overgrowth, obesity, Chiari I malformation, seizures, and intellectual disability. SET domain-containing protein 2 (SETD2) is a histone methyltransferase, where mutations in the gene are associated with the development of LLS. However, mechanisms underlying LLS remain unclear. Case Description: A 20-year-old man was referred to our hospital because of tall stature. His body height was 188.2 cm (+3.18 SD) and he showed obesity with a body mass index of 28.4 kg/m2. He exhibited acral overgrowth, jaw malocclusion, and prognathism, but no history of seizures, intellectual disability, or speech delay. Serum growth hormone (GH), insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), and nadir GH levels after administration of 75 g oral glucose were within normal range. Pituitary magnetic resonance imaging showed no pituitary adenoma, but Chiari I malformation. Whole exome sequencing analysis of the proband revealed a de novo heterozygous germline mutation in SETD2 (c.236T>A, p.L79H). Skin fibroblasts derived from the patient grew faster than those from his father and the control subject. In addition, these cells showed enhanced tyrosine phosphorylation and transcriptional activity of signal transducer and activator of transcription 5b (STAT5b) and increased IGF-1 expression induced by GH. Conclusion: This is a mild case of LLS with a novel mutation in SETD2 without neurological symptoms. LLS should be differentiated in a patient with gigantism without pituitary tumors. Although further investigation is necessary, this is the first study to suggest the involvement of aberrant GH signaling in the development of LLS.

Paired box 8 (PAX8) mutations are an established genetic cause of congenital hypothyroidism (CH). The majority of these mutations are found in the protein-coding exons of the gene. The proband, a 3-yr-old girl, had tetralogy of Fallot and polydactyly soon after birth. She was diagnosed with CH in the newborn screening for CH. She had a high serum TSH level (239 mU/L) and low free T4 level (0.7 ng/dL). Ultrasonography revealed thyroid hypoplasia. We performed array comparative genomic hybridization because the patient exhibited a variety of symptoms across multiple organ systems. The analysis revealed a novel heterozygous deletion that spanned a 15.2 Mb region in 2q12.3q14.3 (GRCh37; chr2:109,568,260–124,779,449). There were 71 protein-coding genes in this region, including two genes (PAX8 and GLI2) associated with congenital endocrine disorders. The common clinical features of the two previously reported patients with a total PAX8 deletion and our case were CH, short stature and intellectual disability, but the severity of hypothyroidism and other clinical features were variable. In conclusion, we describe a syndromic CH patient with a novel 2q12.3q14.3 deletion involving PAX8. Patients with CH, whose unifying diagnosis is not obvious, could have a genomic deletion involving PAX8.

PAX8 is a transcription factor that is expressed in the thyroid gland and kidneys. Monoallelic loss-of-function PAX8 variants cause congenital hypothyroidism (CH), and urogenital malformations are infrequent complications seen in less than 10% of PAX8 variant carriers. Herein, we report the case of a 3-yr-old female patient with CH who was diagnosed during newborn screening. She was treated with levothyroxine, and she showed normal growth and development at a minimal dose (0.7 µg/kg/d of levothyroxine at 3 yr of age). At 5 mo of age, she visited an emergency department for fever and was incidentally found to have differently sized kidneys by ultrasonography, which was subsequently diagnosed as unilateral multicystic dysplastic kidney. Her serum creatinine and cystatin C levels were normal. Next-generation sequencing-based genetic analysis revealed that the patient was heterozygous for a PAX8 frameshift variant (p.Thr320ProfsTer106) and a DUOX2 missense variant (p.Arg885Gln). Our patient is the first truncating PAX8 variant carrier to have a urogenital malformation with CH. Genetic analysis for PAX8 should be considered in patients with CH and urogenital malformations.

Germline intragenic mutations in the GNAS locus result in pseudohypoparathyroidism type 1a (PHP1a) and related conditions. Nearly half of the previously reported GNAS intragenic mutations were structural variants, including 3 tandem duplications of 12-25 bp. However, the precise mutation spectrum and the genomic basis of GNAS structural variants remain to be clarified. Here, we report a de novo 50-bp tandem duplication in GNAS (c.723_772dup50, p.Glu259Leufs*29) identified in a patient with typical clinical features of PHP1a. The mutant transcript was predicted to undergo mRNA decay or encode a nonfunctional protein. The 2 breakpoints of the duplication shared a 1-bp microhomology but were not associated with long homology or nucleotide stretches. We also examined the breakpoint structures of 3 previously reported GNAS duplications and found that 1 had a structure similar to that of our case, while the remaining 2 had blunt-ended breakpoints without microhomologies. In silico analyses revealed that the GNAS-flanking region was not enriched with repeats, palindromes, noncanonical DNA motifs, or GC content. This study expands the mutation spectrum of GNAS and provides the first indication that GNAS intragenic structural variants are induced by multiple processes, including nonhomologous end-joining and/or microhomology-mediated break-induced replication, independently of known rearrangement-inducing DNA features.

BACKGROUND: MIRAGE syndrome is a recently discovered rare genetic disease characterized by myelodysplasia (M), infection (I), growth restriction (R), adrenal hypoplasia (A), genital phenotypes (G), and enteropathy (E), caused by a gain-of-function mutation in the SAMD9 gene. We encountered a girl with molecularly-confirmed MIRAGE syndrome who developed steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome. CASE PRESENTATION: She was born at 33 weeks gestational age with a birth weight of 1064 g. She showed growth failure, mild developmental delays, intractable enteropathy and recurrent pneumonia. She was diagnosed as MIRAGE syndrome by whole exome sequencing and a novel SAMD9 variant (c.4615 T > A, p.Leu1539Ile) was identified at age four. Biopsied skin fibroblast cells showed changes in the endosome system that are characteristic of MIRAGE syndrome, supporting the genetic diagnosis. Proteinuria was noted at age one, following nephrotic syndrome at age five. A renal biopsy showed focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) with immune deposits. Steroid treatment was ineffective. Because we speculated that her nephrosis was a result of genetic FSGS, we decided not to introduce immunosuppressive agents and instead started enalapril to reduce proteinuria. Although her proteinuria persisted, her renal function was normal at age eight. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first detailed report of a MIRAGE syndrome patient with nephrotic syndrome. Because patients with MIRAGE syndrome have structural abnormalities in the endosomal system, we speculate that dysfunction of endocytosis in podocytes might be a possible mechanism for proteinuria.

Germline or somatic gain-of-function mutations in the v-akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog 3 (AKT3) have been reported to cause syndromic megalencephaly. We describe a novel germline mutation, p.Glu40Lys, in AKT3. Phenotypically, the patient presented with megalencephaly with hypotonia, apparent connective tissue laxity, and growth hormone (GH) deficiency. To our knowledge, this is the first instance of a patient with megalencephaly with GH deficiency, harboring a germline de novo mutation in AKT3. (C) 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.