[Special Feature: The Great Kanto Earthquake and Keio University] The Great Kanto Earthquake and Fukuzawa Yukichi

2023/08/21

Currently, the special exhibition "Sone Chujo Architectural Design Office and Keio University" is being held at the Keio History Museum in Mita. Sone Chujo Architectural Design Office was an architectural firm that designed more than 30 buildings for Keio University from the late Meiji era to the 1930s. Its representative work is the Mita Media Center (Keio University Library) (Old Building), completed in 1912 shortly after the office opened—that magnificent red-brick Gothic building. It was co-led by Tatsuzo Sone, who studied as a first-generation student under Josiah Conder, the father of modern Japanese architecture, and Seiichiro Chujo, who studied under Sone's contemporary Kingo Tatsuno. It was called the largest and best private architectural firm in pre-war Japan. This exhibition is an attempt to consider why such a long and deep history was carved between this office and the Juku, and the display is divided into two periods, before and after the Great Kanto Earthquake.

In preparing for the exhibition, I thought about "Fukuzawa Yukichi and Architecture." Was Fukuzawa interested in architecture? The answer I reached is YES. In Things Western (Seiyō Jijō), published in 1866, Fukuzawa represents a world drastically changing due to the Industrial Revolution with interesting illustrations. Telegraph lines are stretched across the globe, with personified information running along them. Depicted at the bottom are tools developed through the invention of the steam engine: steam locomotives, steamships, balloons, and towering "high-rise buildings." If the inclusion of high-rise buildings in this picture means that the Industrial Revolution dramatically developed the scale and quality of buildings and expanded human potential, then Fukuzawa was indeed interested in the progress of architectural technology.

In fact, there were many engineers involved in architecture around Fukuzawa. Fukuzawa's close friend Saburo Utsunomiya was a person who succeeded in the domestic production of Portland cement and firebricks, which are essential for construction. His disciple, Sadakichi Nakamura, became the husband of Fukuzawa's eldest daughter, Sato. Tatsuzo Sone was a contemporary of Sadakichi at the Imperial College of Engineering (one of the predecessors of the Faculty of Engineering at the University of Tokyo), though in a different major, and he contributed a memoir to Utsunomiya's biography. Utsunomiya's wife and the wife of Fukuzawa's eldest son, Ichitaro, were sisters, and the brother between them was the architect Sannosuke Osawa.

The most decisive presence is Jukichi Fujimoto. He was the son of Fukuzawa's cousin Gentai Fujimoto from Nakatsu. He stayed with Fukuzawa, went through Keio University, and became an architect as a second-generation student of Conder at the Imperial College of Engineering. He designed the old Jukukan-kyoku (Keio Corporate Administration) (1887), which was Keio University's first brick building, but unfortunately passed away at a young age. One of the few memoirs conveying his story was left in this journal in 1937 by none other than Tatsuzo Sone.

A major turning point for modern Japanese construction methods was the Nobi Earthquake on October 28, 1891. This inland earthquake, estimated at magnitude 8.0, caused brick buildings in the Gifu and Aichi areas to collapse one after another. On the other hand, Nagoya Castle escaped collapse. At a time when the full extent of the damage was not yet understood, Fukuzawa published an editorial titled "Earthquakes are the Great Test of Construction Methods" in the newspaper he managed, the Jiji Shinpo (dated November 1 of the same year).

In this editorial, Fukuzawa considers architectural technology, arguing that since the use of bricks in Japan was still in its infancy, perhaps the engineers were unfamiliar with them, or perhaps they neglected the "internal construction methods" while making only the exterior Western-style. Or perhaps it was because "the geology and climate of the East and West are not the same." He suggests that brick buildings should be considered in a "testing" period for performance until they are proven suitable for Japan. He proposes avoiding their use for storing "precious items" or for "residences where one sleeps and eats," limiting them to use as storehouses or sheds for "coarse goods." Using his characteristic metaphors, he warns against simply imitating the form of Western architecture, saying, "Because the geology of the East and West is not the same, Western-style houses are inconvenient; if an architect installs a gutter according to Western methods, Japanese rain does not fall in the Western way and the water overflows." He concludes, "I only pray that the government and the people will take this earthquake as a great test of our construction methods and pay even more attention whenever there is a new construction project."

In other words, he points out the need to scientifically and calmly determine whether Western architectural technology, which had only recently been introduced, is suitable for Japan. This can be rephrased as an expression of the spirit of jitsugaku (science) as a Science that seeks to learn and progress from natural disasters, rather than simply lamenting and stopping because they are beyond human wisdom.

Whether Fukuzawa's discourse was effective, or simply due to budget issues (likely the latter), Keio University continued to build primarily wooden buildings thereafter. Even after Fukuzawa's death, when Tatsuzo Sone and Katsuya Yasuoka—who were involved in the development of the Marunouchi office district known as "Little London" under Heigoro Shoda, a businessman called the chief clerk of Mitsubishi and Chair, Keio University Board of Councillors—took charge of Keio University's architecture, the era of wooden buildings continued.

In 1912, the library built with donations for the 50th anniversary of the founding of Keio University became the first brick building at Keio University in nearly a quarter-century since Jukichi Fujimoto's old Jukukan-kyoku (Keio Corporate Administration). Regardless of whether Fukuzawa's points regarding the Nobi Earthquake were consciously considered, those involved with the Juku, along with the scholarly Tatsuzo Sone who researched the latest and best technologies, were tireless in their study of structures. To borrow the expression of the first Library Director, Kazusada Tanaka, they "were given a set space and a set amount of money, and strove to do their best within those limits" (June 1912 issue of this journal).

The structure was brick with some reinforced concrete and steel frames. At this time, those involved were particularly passionate about fireproofing. The stacks had six levels including the basement, and each floor had a central corridor and stairs with bookrooms on both sides, separated by thick fire walls and iron doors. Furthermore, fire shutters were installed outside the glass windows, and wire-reinforced glass was used for the high windows on the top floor. Since the adjacent buildings were wooden, one can sense the intense passion the owner and designer poured into protecting the books, which are the foundation of scholarship.

Tanaka proudly wrote, "The engineers and we had a very close relationship, and we created this by investigating without reservation; in this respect, we were very fortunate, and the engineers also worked very hard to produce this," and even added, "I believe there are few places even abroad that have done this much fireproofing."

Despite the budget constraints of a private institution, the ambition to use the best technology was extraordinary.

Keio University could not escape damage in the Great Kanto Earthquake of September 1, 1923. The old Jukukan-kyoku (Keio Corporate Administration) designed by Jukichi Fujimoto became unusable after an aftershock in January of the following year and was demolished. The library also suffered cracks in various places, and the octagonal tower in particular had to be demolished and rebuilt.

The Great Auditorium completed in 1915, also known as the "Keio-za," was a steel-framed brick building with a beautiful exterior that was the pride of Keio students. However, the facade was severely damaged, and repairs were made by completely changing the front appearance. At this time, Keio University raised 300,000 yen by issuing "Juku Bonds" at 50 yen per unit for the first time in its history (see the separate editorial article). The first reinforced concrete school building of Keio University, completed in 1920, escaped damage, and damage to all other wooden school buildings was minor.

Fortunately for Keio University, it was not caught in the fires. The library's thorough fireproofing did not have to demonstrate its true worth, but the sense of security must have been great. The library of Tokyo Imperial University in Hongo burned for three days and was completely destroyed, resulting in the loss of 700,000 volumes, including precious primary sources—a great loss to the Japanese academic community. There were few fires around the Mita Campus, and classrooms were opened from the day of the earthquake until the end of September to take in many disaster victims.

Here, I would like to draw attention to the editorial "Reflections on the Great Earthquake" by Kiroku Hayashi (1872–1950), which appeared at the beginning of the first Mita-hyoron (official monthly journal published by Keio University Press) after the earthquake (November 1923 issue). Hayashi assumed the post of President shortly after writing this piece and was the person who steered Keio University's significant development toward earthquake recovery and the construction of the Hoshiyoshi Campus. He became a teacher at the Juku immediately after graduating from the college Department of Literature in 1895. As a high-spirited young man, he frequently visited Fukuzawa to vigorously advocate for reforms, saying "Keio University should be like this." Perhaps found interesting by Fukuzawa, he was quickly promoted to the head of the Keio Futsubu School. He later wrote, "I, having just reached the age of twenty-seven... must have appeared quite conceited, and some people must have felt unpleasant. Thinking back now, I cannot help but feel a bit of a cold sweat" (Seiritsu no Ki).

He is also known for his legendary public speaking at the "Century Send-off Party" held by Keio University on New Year's Eve at the end of the 19th century, where he gave a stirring speech titled "Depart, Nineteenth Century," which captivated the audience.

I believe the main duty of nineteenth-century civilization was to break down medieval superstition and tyranny, and also to increase the material welfare of mankind. Moving from the development of human rights to the manifestation of humanity, advancing from the self-governance of the people to the republic of mankind, and heading from material pleasure toward the happiness of the spirit—this is surely the path that future civilization should take. Yes, we shall not say much now. Depart, nineteenth century; you have fulfilled your duty well. Come, twentieth century; your future is vast.

While he depicted the arrival of the 20th century brightly in this way, he concluded by preaching the responsibility of the Juku in the new century as an era of severe trials.

Looking back, although our Empire of Japan has worked diligently on various reforms since the latter half of the nineteenth century and made progress unparalleled in history, there are still many remnants and legacies of the previous century. Old thoughts, old systems, and old customs are piled high everywhere like detestable rotting bones and flesh. To plan for the development of a new civilization, we must first start by sweeping away this filth. Gentlemen, Keio University has traditionally prided itself as a brave warrior of the army of civilization. I hope that upon sending off the nineteenth century and welcoming the new world of the twentieth century, the ambitions of our party will be particularly clear, brilliant, and grand.

Hayashi appealed for the awareness of responsibility, stating that as we must now fight against "old thoughts, old systems, and old customs," our role in emphasizing the civilization of human wisdom becomes increasingly heavy. At this time, Hayashi was 28 years old. Soon, he would study in Europe under what was then the only overseas study system for a private institution and become a pioneer in the study of diplomatic history.

The Great Kanto Earthquake occurred when Hayashi was 51 years old. How did Japan at the time of the earthquake appear to his eyes?

Hayashi first surveys the damage of the earthquake, celebrates the luck that the damage to the Juku was not immense, and recalls the historical event in 1868 during the turmoil of the Restoration when Keio University continued its studies without interruption and celebrated on the mid-year holiday that "the light of learning has not fallen to the ground." He writes that he feels a "similar sentiment."

He then discusses what should be learned from "this great disaster." When faced with a natural disaster, humans tend to give up, thinking they can only pity themselves as tiny, powerless beings, but Hayashi says, "It is the mission of civilization to conquer nature." The ultimate goal of "conquest" would be earthquake prediction, but he expects this to be "impossible for the time being." If that is the case, he asks whether we have made the maximum effort with today's scientific standards, stating, "It should be possible even with today's science to perfect earthquake-resistant measures in normal times and extremely reduce earthquake disasters."

Importing construction methods from countries without earthquakes into our earthquake-prone country without conducting thorough special research should be called the sin of scholarly negligence; it is truly a failure to do what human effort should do. This is even more true regarding fires.

In post-earthquake Japan, theories of "divine punishment" (tenken-ron) and "divine blessing" (tenkei-ron) were advocated. Divine punishment meant a penalty from heaven. It was said that this earthquake was a scolding from heaven for the decadence of Japanese morality. Furthermore, the divine blessing theory held that this disaster was given by heaven as an opportunity to reform the world. In particular, Eiichi Shibusawa famously advocated "divine punishment," stating that the "imperial culture" that had developed in Tokyo and Yokohama since the Meiji Restoration had "completely collapsed," and saying, "Was this culture truly in accord with reason and the heavenly way? How is recent politics, and was there not a tendency in the economic world to aim for private gain and greed? I am awestruck by it as divine punishment in a certain sense" (Hochi Shimbun, evening edition, September 10 of the same year), advocating the unification of morality and economy. What about Hayashi?

Even with our current infantile civilization, if we fully utilize what science teaches us, there is undoubtedly still great room for protecting human happiness. If this disaster truly contains the allegory of so-called divine punishment, it should be interpreted first and foremost as a reprimand for the overly unscientific nature of the Japanese people's social organization.

Hayashi demands thorough scientific rigor. He effectively and sharply rejects the theory of divine punishment, which is a spiritualism unrelated to human progress against the danger of earthquakes. Furthermore, regarding the massacre of Koreans and the Amakasu Incident, he severely blames the Japanese people's "ignorance" and lack of "composure," as well as the bad habits of "not respecting the law" and "disregarding human life," not softening his criticism of "the absolute disgrace of Japanese civilization," "the most uncivilized and great misfortune," "the narrow-minded evil customs of the elderly," and "ignoring humanity." He concludes as follows:

Now, the full attention of the government and people of our country is concentrated on the problem of reconstructing the imperial capital. It goes without saying that reconstruction is an urgent task. However, while our citizens strive in this reconstruction work, they must also aim to sweep away the various evil customs I have described above. ... If the many misfortunes that occurred during this disaster serve as a stimulus to break down evil customs and encourage a new spirit of civilization, then the disaster will not have been without meaning.

Far from aging, Hayashi's writing grew even sharper. In the end, he remained a single-minded young man who, since shortly after graduating from the Juku, consistently pursued the "breaking down of evil customs" and "civilization" traditional to Japan, which is consistent with Fukuzawa's lifelong stance, including immediately after the Nobi Earthquake.

Readers of this journal may remember the sense of human helplessness before nature and the abnormal excitement with rumors flying about that were spoken of during great disasters, including the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake and the Great East Japan Earthquake. However, the history of the predecessors of Keio University mentioned above tells us that stopping there, simply looking up at the sky and lamenting, or surrendering oneself to the flood of information is not the way.

What happened, and what was lacking? What needs to be clarified from now on? The source of the perspective that coolly points these out is scholarship, which is what we value. The fact that this journal placed Hayashi's essay at the beginning immediately after the earthquake may have an important meaning that is worth looking at again when considering what kind of thinking Keio University, a school founded by Fukuzawa, aimed to spread and will continue to aim for.