Dr. Chambers and Dr. Johnson

2018/01/01

Image: Dr. Chambers

Fukuzawa Yukichi's second trip abroad, his visit to Europe in 1862 (Bunkyu 2), held great significance. In a letter sent from London to Shimazu Suketaro of the Nakatsu Domain, a close confidant, he described his feelings as follows:

"It is difficult to say that everything is clear at a glance, but compared to what I have researched in books until now, seeing is truly believing, and I have gained much benefit in many ways."

Furthermore, in his later years, when compiling his own works, he reflected on his state of mind at that time in the Foreword to the Collected Works of Fukuzawa as follows:

"There was nothing I saw—hospitals, almshouses, schools for the blind and deaf, asylums for the insane, museums, exhibitions, and so on—that was not novel to my eyes, and nothing I heard regarding their origins and utility that did not fascinate me. (...) Along with my amazement, I felt envy, and the ambition to implement these in my own country of Japan was something I could not restrain even if I tried."

This visit to Europe was as a member of the Shogunate's mission to Europe, but for Fukuzawa, it was a precious opportunity to gain a concrete understanding of various social systems that could not be understood simply by reading original texts in Japan. In various locations, he met local people through various inspections. Thanks to their kindness and the strong will of Fukuzawa and his companions to clarify ambiguities through repeated questioning, they were able to gain the knowledge that led to works such as Things Western (Seiyō Jijō).

The longest stay was in London, England, where they stayed from April 30 to June 13 in the New Style calendar. The itinerary during that time is detailed in Fukuzawa's own Seikōki (Diary of a Voyage to the West), and the names of two Englishmen appear there, each on two separate days. They are "Dr. Chambers" and "Dr. Johnson."

"Dr. Chambers" was Thomas King Chambers, born in 1817, who was 44 years old at the time.

Born in London, he studied at Christ Church, Oxford University, and then studied medical sciences at St. George's Hospital at Hyde Park Corner in London. A physician specializing in nutrition and digestion, he served as one of the first physicians at the newly opened St. Mary's Hospital.

Chambers later had to undergo amputation of his left leg in 1864 and his right leg in 1878 due to a vascular disorder in his lower limbs, so his period of activity as a doctor was not very long. However, the time Fukuzawa met him was when he was in his prime.

The fact that he accompanied the Prince of Wales (later Edward VII) on his travels to Italy and Spain in 1859 clearly indicates Chambers' reputation as a physician. Furthermore, most of his lecture notes and papers published in leading British medical journals, such as the British Medical Journal, date from the late 1850s to around 1862 or 1863.

However, his distinction also lay in points that went beyond his skill as a physician.

Looking at obituary articles from when he passed away in 1889, a personality emerges with a deep knowledge of literature and art, and a character that suggests profound education and refined dignity. He also had a high interest in medical education; even after retiring to the suburbs, he fulfilled his responsibilities as a representative of Oxford University on the Medical Council, an organization that ensures the quality and qualifications of doctors in the UK, and worked to improve the status of medical sciences at the university. Furthermore, he was a person who made significant contributions to medical education for women. He consistently supported activities to open the doors to the medical profession—which was then male-only—to women from the very beginning, and continued to support the London School of Medicine for Women, established in 1874.

On the other hand, "Dr. Johnson" was Edmund Charles Johnson, born in 1822, who was in his 40th year when he met Fukuzawa.

Johnson became a doctor after studying at St. George's Hospital, where his older brother practiced surgery. However, at the age of 22, accompanying the blind Viscount Cranborne on a trip became a turning point in his life. During this trip, they visited major schools for the blind across Europe; after returning home, he did not return to clinical practice as a doctor but dedicated his life to the welfare of the visually and hearing impaired.

For example, he was not only involved in the management of the London School for the Indigent Blind in Southwark, South London, but also served as a member of the Royal Commission for the blind and deaf and was involved in the management committees of several facilities. Additionally, when a conference for the blind was held in Paris in 1878, he served as its vice-president.

In this way, while Johnson devoted himself to the actual management of schools and the enhancement of education, he also left behind written works.

Tangible Typography, published in 1853, is an overview of braille notation methods, explaining each major method with actual examples of braille embossed on thick paper.

In 1855, he published An Inquiry into the Musical Instruction of the Blind. This was a compilation of his observations of music education in schools for the blind in France and Spain; it not only discusses the significance of music education for the visually impaired but also demonstrates how to notate music by contrasting standard scores with braille notation.

Johnson passed away in 1895, and his obituary at the time clearly illustrates his uniqueness. The St. George's Hospital Gazette reported it with the opening, "(His death) has taken away a St. George's man who followed his own path." Furthermore, the medical journal The Lancet paid tribute with the opening, "He was the only physician who had long ago given up professional practice to devote himself to improving the conditions of the blind and the deaf-mute."

Fukuzawa's itinerary on-site is detailed in Seikōki. Let's look at the descriptions related to the two men.

"Went to St. Mary's Hospital with Dr. Chambers; on the way back, stopped by Chambers' home and drank tea" (Local calendar May 11)

"Went to King's College School with Dr. Chambers, then went to the asylum for the deaf and mute and saw Dr. Johnson" (May 19)

"Went to St. George's Hospital with Dr. Johnson; on the way back, went to the asylum for the blind and the asylum for the insane with Dr. Johnson" (May 20)

Chambers guided Fukuzawa and his companions to St. Mary's Hospital, where he worked. They spent over three hours touring the hospital and its affiliated medical school.

King's College School, which he guided them to the following week, was the school responsible for the primary and secondary education of King's College and was located in the same building as the university at the time. In other words, Fukuzawa observed the state of integrated education from elementary and junior high students to university students.

Then, Chambers introduced Johnson, and under his guidance, they inspected the "Asylum for the Blind," "Asylum for the Deaf and Mute," and "Asylum for the Insane." The "Asylum for the Insane" refers to a psychiatric hospital, specifically Bethlem Hospital, which was attracting attention at the time for reforms that considered the patients' living environment.

At the asylum for the blind, they listened to the students' musical performances and saw the state of education using braille, as well as education aimed at enabling them to earn a living—that is, vocational training.

At the asylum for the deaf and mute, he observed and noted down the way they learned methods of vocalization and lip-reading to understand sounds from the movement of another's mouth. Furthermore, Fukuzawa wrote the following:

"There was one girl. I asked her, 'How do you do?' She replied in a voice, 'Very well, thank you.' I also asked, 'How long have you been in this school?' She replied, 'Ten years.' Her quickness was like this."

The image emerges of him not merely listening to explanations but engaging directly with the students to confirm the results of their education.

A characteristic of Fukuzawa's inspections in London was that he did not merely look at cutting-edge industries, but focused on the education of people with disabilities as a mechanism that supports the side and bottom, so to speak, of an industrialized society.

In that respect, meeting Johnson through Chambers was a stroke of luck for Fukuzawa.

Chambers was the kind of person who, while escorting Fukuzawa and his companions from the hospital inspection to the Claridge's Hotel where they were staying, invited them for tea at his home, which happened to be right across from the hotel. Regarding Johnson, when Fukuzawa noted down the state of the asylum for the blind, he wrote at the end:

"The governor of the asylum is called Johnson. I am particularly fond of this man."

Finally, I would like to mention the relationship between Chambers and Johnson.

The two studied medical sciences at St. George's Hospital at the same time and were even honored for their excellent grades in the same year, so there is no doubt they were old acquaintances. While researching Chambers' books at the British Library, the author once found a book with an "EDMUND.C.JOHNSON" bookplate on the left side of the front cover and a dedication by the author on the right page. The dedication was dated February 1887. In other words, their interaction continued until their later years.