Poland and Japan

Poland's history is full of drama. The "Partitions of Poland" by the three great powers—Russia, Prussia, and Austria—in the late 18th century continue to have a major impact on the consciousness of the Polish people today. However, prior to that, from the 15th to the 17th century, Poland (the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) boasted considerable prosperity as a major power in Central and Eastern Europe.

It is said that the nation was founded around the 9th or 10th century. As Ms. Shibata mentioned, the period from the 15th to the 17th century was the so-called golden age, when Poland existed as a country with a very large territory.

Yes. A characteristic feature was that the gentry (szlachta) accounted for about 10% of the population, and from the 16th century, they chose their kings themselves through an elective monarchy rather than hereditary succession. There was such a strong sense of freedom, and I believe that the consciousness of democracy and freedom is still highly valued in present-day Poland.

However, because they valued freedom so much, these gentry members conspired with each other or were bribed by foreign powers, abusing their right of veto in the parliament. This triggered interference from the great powers and led to the partitions.

If asked "What kind of country is Poland?", I think one could say it is one of the oldest countries whose name remains. Like the current name Poland (Polonia in Latin, Polska in Polish), there are not many countries whose names have continued from the Middle Ages to the present.

There was no country called Italy, nor were there countries called Germany or Austria. Among the names of countries that currently make up the EU, Poland is one of the oldest country names.

Regarding language as well, after the end of Latin dominance in the Middle Ages, people like Luther worked hard to spread German in the 16th century, but Polish literature was completed in the mid-16th century, only slightly behind German.

I think this "oldness" is important. I believe their self-image has existed from the Middle Ages to today. The awareness of being Polish must have existed for a very long time.

What surprised me in Poland was that May 3rd is Constitution Memorial Day, the same day as in Japan. However, in Poland, the constitution was enacted in 1791.

This is the second oldest codified national constitution in world history, after the United States. Therefore, they had a tradition of parliamentary politics with a very long history. Polish people seem to be proud of that as well. That period was the era of the so-called First Republic.

The end of it, rather.

After that, following the period of partitions and the end of World War I in 1918, they managed to win independence based on the principle of national self-determination, and the Second Republic began from there. Then, after World War II and the communist regime of the Soviet era, the Cold War ended in 1989 and the country democratized. That is when the Third Republic began.

The First Republic is called a republic even though it had a king. This is rare. I don't know of any others.

This system, where the king is also chosen by election, is also called a Noble Republic or Gentry Democracy.

The transition to elective monarchy happened around the mid-16th century, exactly the same time as the autonomy of the written Polish language. The right to vote was held by anyone with gentry status—in Japanese terms, anyone belonging to the samurai class. There were no restrictions based on nationality for the king to be elected.

Therefore, there were several foreign kings. In fact, the king chosen in the first election came from France. In that way, an interesting kind of parliamentary democracy existed from quite early on.

That's true.

And the king didn't have much power; they hated absolute monarchy (laughs). The gentry, who made up 10% of the population, were all masters of their own domains, held large estates, possessed a certain degree of freedom, and acted as rival local leaders.

The king was merely one among many powerful lords, and there was no national standing army. Meanwhile, surrounding powers aiming for absolute monarchy, such as France, the Habsburgs, and Russia, grew stronger and stronger, and Poland was torn apart at the end of the 18th century.

There is also a deep relationship with Christianity.

In the Middle Ages, as Poland was founded and established its position within the Latin and Christian community, it had intense encounters with non-European forces, particularly the Mongols, and began to develop a self-awareness there.

Around the time of the Mongol invasions of Japan, the Polish people fought the Mongol army—the Tatars—and suffered considerably, with their monarch being killed. They were given a mission by Rome to protect the Christian world and began to internalize this themselves.

Then, a little later, when it came to fighting the Russians who belonged to a different form of Christianity, the Eastern Orthodox Church, they could no longer say they were protecting Christianity. So, the rhetoric that emerged was: "We are protecting Europe, protecting freedom, and protecting democracy." These are words we've heard somewhere before, aren't they? (laughs)

That is often said nowadays.

In other words, they played the role of the bulwark of Europe, protecting Europe's eastern border.

Thus, the Polish people have a logic of having protected Europe and Christianity. This isn't taught in Japanese schools, but I think it's an important point. When you actually go to Europe or America, you encounter such rhetoric.

Regarding that idea of protecting Christianity and Europe, the concept that remains most strongly in present-day Poland is likely the Messianism created by Romantic literature.

In the 19th century, two major armed uprisings occurred in partitioned Poland: the November Uprising of 1830–31 and the January Uprising of 1863–64. When the November Uprising failed, intellectuals went into exile in Paris. There were three important poets, including the national poet Adam Mickiewicz, and it can be said that these poets shaped the consciousness of the "Polish nation."

In the 1830s, Mickiewicz and others likened Poland, which was suffering from the loss of sovereignty, to Christ among the European nations. By shedding blood and fighting, the Polish people would atone for the sins of those trapped in autocratic states and materialistic civilizations, and establish the Kingdom of God on earth. In the 1840s, this developed into the idea of longing for a hero to lead this struggle. They reinterpreted their consciousness of suffering as a national mission to restore freedom to Europe. It was, so to speak, a philosophy of a community of fate.

Originally, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the region with the largest number of Jews in the world. It was between the current Republic of Poland and the Russian Federation. But this, too, is rarely taught in schools. This is because the maps in textbooks given at school are all political maps divided by borders, and a Jewish state did not exist until the re-establishment of Israel.

If you look at maps divided by borders, Poland disappears at a certain point in time. In the 19th century, when Japan opened up and Japanese people first learned about Poland, the state of Poland happened not to exist. I think this has greatly influenced the image of Poland as seen from Japan.

What was written about most during the Meiji era was the tragic history of Poland—the image of a "poor, pitiful country." From that, a perspective also emerged that Japan should avoid becoming like Poland.

Among the competing great powers, weak countries are devoured, so a country must have strong armaments, be centralized, and become a strong nation. Looking at Meiji-era literature, we can see that Poland was kept in mind as an example of a country that became prey and was torn to pieces.

Yukichi Fukuzawa also mentions the partitions of Poland in Things Western (Seiyō Jijō) and in an editorial for the Jiji Shinpo titled "The Poland of the East." He likely felt a sense of crisis that the dominance of European powers would reach Asia, overlaying it with the situation in Poland.

I basically believe that the Polish people have a national character that is tolerant toward foreigners. When I think about how they lived together tolerantly with many Jews before the war, I feel a bit of a disconnect with the claim that exclusionary tendencies are emerging in Poland, as is being made a fuss of in the media today.

Except for the Jewish population, they haven't had much recent experience with the influx of immigrants, so there may be an aspect of lacking experience.

Various studies on Jews and anti-Semitism have come out recently. One of the triggers was the book "Neighbors" by Jan Tomasz Gross, published in Poland in 2000, which revealed that a massacre of Jews was actually carried out by Polish people in the town of Jedwabne during World War II.

Since this was just before joining the EU and when the identity of the Polish people was being debated, old anti-Semitism resurfaced, with claims that it was a conspiracy by Jews—the "others" to the Polish people—to tarnish the country's image.

Although still few in number, it seems that Muslim immigrants are gradually increasing now. I believe we must carefully watch what kind of discourse will unfold regarding immigrants in the future.

I first took up my post in Poland in October 2011, the year the Great East Japan Earthquake occurred. For more than six months immediately after 3/11, bouquets and lanterns were constantly placed in front of the embassy gate, praying for the peace and recovery of the disaster-stricken areas.

After taking up my post, I met many Polish people, and everyone worried about whether the disaster was okay, which I was very grateful for. Many people supported Japan strongly through donations and charity activities.

I felt that behind this surge of support for Japan was, after all, a pro-Japanese national sentiment.

I think there are various stages in the history of exchange between Japan and Poland since the 19th century, but the very first, as is the case with Europe as a whole, was likely the influence of Japonisme.

It is said that the collector Feliks "Manggha" Jasieński, whom Mr. Sekiguchi has written about, traveled all over Europe collecting ukiyo-e. There is also a story that the film director Andrzej Wajda saw Jasieński's collection in his youth, was shocked by it, and connected it to his own creative activities.

However, in terms of Japonisme in art history, I think Poland is the country with the fewest examples in Europe.

When Jasieński bought many pieces of Western European modern art and Japanese prints at auctions and exhibited them in Warsaw, he had a terrible time, didn't he?

That's true. It seems that at that time, Jasieński's appearance was also considered unusual.

Rather, there were many criticisms that he was exhibiting things from a barbaric country that could hardly be considered art. In other words, unlike Berlin, Paris, or Vienna, Warsaw did not accept his ideas.

On the other hand, in the old southern city of Kraków, there was a higher understanding of art compared to Warsaw. It was freer than Warsaw, and Jasieński was accepted there, with people thinking Japanese art was interesting.

But compared to other countries, I think it's fair to say that Japonisme was weak in Poland.

Jasieński believed that Poland lacked national or ethnic art, and I think he said he wanted to create it by taking inspiration from Japanese art.

When I spoke with modern Polish people interested in Japanese culture, they also said that because they hadn't been able to pursue beauty to its ultimate end in Poland, Japanese art becomes a driving force for them.

Therefore, even if Japonisme was weak at the end of the 19th century, I think its influence continues to this day.

To put it simply, I think the Russo-Japanese War was a major reason why Poland is pro-Japanese. Japan, a country in Asia they didn't know well, defeated the hated Russia that had tormented them so much. The enemy of my enemy is my friend. That feeling continues to some extent even now, and I hear that history textbooks devote a considerable number of pages to the Russo-Japanese War.

There is also a very heartwarming episode connecting Japan and Poland. Around 1920, after the Russian Revolution, there were many Polish orphans in Siberia. They were children of families exiled to Siberia who had lost their parents and were on the verge of death from malnutrition.

Among the countries they asked for help, only Japan accepted them. About 800 orphans recovered their health in Japan and returned safely to Poland. This episode also remains in the memory of the Polish people.

Also, Polish people have an interest in and admiration for Japanese culture rich in spirituality, such as martial arts, tea ceremony, and flower arrangement, which I feel leads to their pro-Japanese sentiment. That's why the enthusiasm for learning Japanese is high, and the popularity of anime and Japanese food is also very high.

Ms. Shibata, do you also think they are a pro-Japanese country?

Whether they are politically on the right or the left, there are few instances where they say bad things, and I think there are many people who like Japan.

I see. To say something slightly to the contrary, it's been over 50 years since I first started encountering Poland through literature, film, and prints, but I don't have the impression that Polish people have a particular affinity for Japan compared to people in other countries.

A long time ago, in the 1970s, I actually taught a geography class at a Polish elementary school.

Is that so? I didn't know that.

There, I learned how little about Japan is taught in the educational field. It's a lack or absence of Japan. Furthermore, what is written in newspapers and textbooks is incorrect. I was quite shocked by that. Of course, there were various biases back then, such as it being the socialist era, but to put it simply, I had a strong impression that Japan was not correctly known.

The fact that it's not known connects with images and myths that come from places like America and Germany. In other words, when an image of Japan comes to someone who hasn't studied it properly, they accept it uncritically.

As Mr. Yamanaka said, it's certainly true that the fact that Japan defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War remains in their collective memory as a starting point. However, I don't have the impression that Poland is more pro-Japanese than other European countries.

Currently, there are 300 Japanese companies operating in Poland, creating 40,000 jobs. I've heard from people in local Japanese companies that they uniformly say Polish employees are very diligent, humble, work hard, and are straightforward.

I often hear stories about Japanese companies that expanded to the West where, when they hire local people, there's a kind of outward obedience but inward defiance—following orders on the surface while badmouthing the Japanese behind their backs. But that's not the case in Poland, and labor-management relations are extremely smooth.

The number of Japanese language learners is, of course, the largest in Central and Eastern Europe, and the quality is also very high. As for the popularity of Japanese food, it's said that there are over 200 sushi restaurants in Warsaw alone.

These are phenomenal aspects, but I feel they might be reflecting a pro-Japanese national character.

While living in Warsaw for a long time, I was often approached by people saying, "Are you Japanese? I like Japan," so I thought they were pro-Japanese. However, as Mr. Sekiguchi said, the image of Japan as a country of admiration comes first, and it could be said that they have an "ideal country, Japan" that they've created in their minds.

In the 1990s, Japanese anime began broadcasting on television in Poland, so at the university where I teach, there are many students who came to like Japan under that influence, and I think there is great interest in modern popular culture.

The Japanese food boom also started quite late in Poland compared to the rest of the world. I think it's because Japan and Japanese people are still not part of their daily lives and are seen as a novelty.

For example, if you compare the films of Ozu and Kurosawa, Kurosawa's name recognition is overwhelmingly high in Poland, while those who know about Ozu are limited to a few specialists. In rankings of the world's great films in the UK, Ozu's "Tokyo Story" was at the top for many years. Poland hasn't reached the stage of finding Ozu interesting. It's still at the stage of exoticism. This is my very strict view.

Furthermore, something I think we might never be able to fully understand each other on is the concept of individualism that Polish people have as a self-image. They see Japanese people as collectivists. They might say we are disciplined, but they can also have a military-like image.

There was mention of factories expanding there, but from what I've heard, it wasn't easy to get Polish people to do radio calisthenics. In other words, they have a very strong aversion to everyone doing the same thing on command.

I think it also took a long time for manga and anime to be accepted by Polish people. That might be because the value of being a child, the culture where "kawaii" (cuteness) is placed at the very top like in "kawaii culture," was alien to them. In other words, Poland has a culture that values being a mature adult, a culture where one is constantly pressured to be an adult.

Looking at several points like that, I think there are actually quite a few differences between Japan and Poland.

Well, I understand what Mr. Sekiguchi is saying, but I feel that perhaps you feel that way precisely because you are a scholar.

I believe there are different layers to the understanding of foreign culture, art, and academia: the expert level and the so-called grassroots level of the general public.

Regarding experts, I think the level of people researching Japan at the University of Warsaw and Jagiellonian University, which I am familiar with, is considerably high compared to other European countries.

I agree that it is high.

As an example of the grassroots level, there is the "Japan Festival" that started in Warsaw in 2013. With a large venue featuring stages, booths, and food stalls, it introduced Japanese culture and gained popularity as a place for exchange between locals and Japanese residents. It has been held every year since, making this year the 7th time. The Japan Festival has now become established as a popular event that attracts about 30,000 visitors in a single day.

Another significant presence is the Manggha Museum of Japanese Art and Technology in Krakow. This museum hosts exhibitions of art such as ukiyo-e, workshops, and lectures, attracting over 100,000 visitors annually. It celebrated its 20th anniversary in 2014 and continues to serve as a major hub for disseminating Japanese culture.

I believe there is a strong foundation in Poland for joyfully accepting Japanese culture, technology, and art.

Anime has been quite popular, starting with "Captain Tsubasa" and "Sailor Moon." Even now, students talk about them with a sentimental tone, so I think that influence remains among the younger generation.

The popularity of cosplay is also amazing, isn't it?

That's true. Young Polish people sometimes say that they can "feel freedom" through cosplay. Perhaps when they consider where to source the materials for their own identity, Japanese culture appears as one of those materials—an "attractive otherness."

In Western Europe, where modern civilization has fully matured, there are people who reject Europe more intensely than we can imagine. They desperately search for non-European values in places like Japan or India.

However, in Poland, Eurocentrism—the value of European things—is likely very high. That was a hindering factor in understanding the value of Japan and Japanese culture. But that may be changing.

Yet, there is something a bit mysterious about Poland. While they admire Europe and have protected it, there is also an Orientalist-like pushback. It is a very delicate and complex psychology, but it manifests, for example, in clothing and customs.

I'll give just one example. In 17th and 18th-century Western Europe, wearing a wig was a status symbol and a sign of authority for high-ranking intellectuals and judges. However, in Poland, as a symbol of such status and authority, it was a fashion to shave the hair, much like the "sakayaki" (shaved pate) of Japanese samurai. And a mustache was always necessary. In that way, there is a pushback against Europe and an assertion of their own uniqueness. This is called Sarmatism.

They also link Catholic traditions to their own uniqueness, and even today, there is a kind of pushback against policies like Western European anti-clericalism or the expansion of LGBT rights.

Another topic that often comes up regarding Poland and Japan is Chopin's music. I think this is also a kind of myth, but for Polish people, Chopin's music is considered an artistic work that represents the soul of the Polish nation.

The International Chopin Piano Competition has been held in Warsaw since 1927, and the first Japanese participant was Chieko Hara in 1937. Since then, many Japanese people have competed in the Chopin Competition, with 12 participants in 2015.

Because Japanese people love Chopin's music—the soul of Poland—it reflects a desirable self-image for Polish people like a "mirror," which I believe leads to the recognition that Japan and Poland have a wonderful friendly relationship.

When people think of Poland in Japan, Chopin comes first. That is followed by names like Copernicus or Madame Curie.

Moving to more recent times, some people might know Pope John Paul II, film director Andrzej Wajda, and former President Lech Wałęsa, who was the chairman of Solidarity. However, with few exceptions, there are almost no Japanese people who know more Polish figures than these.

As such, it must be said that Japanese interest in and understanding of Poland is generally lagging. Especially compared to the high interest Polish people have in Japan, the gap is large. I think the desire of Poland to accept Japan more is considerably stronger.

What I struggled with during my four and a half years working in Poland was that while both the government and the general public had very high expectations of Japan, the Japanese side was not easily able to respond to them.

Many Japanese students are studying at music universities in Poland, including Warsaw.

Earlier, Mr. Sekiguchi mentioned that they value individualism and freedom above all else. Chopin's music is very difficult to play because it honestly reveals the humanity and character of the performer. To play it, one needs to be free and always be "oneself."

When I talk to Japanese pianists who have studied in Poland, they say that within the culture and life of Poland, it becomes possible to perform honestly to oneself in a natural way. There is a way of breathing and a climate of being an "artist" that one does not feel in Japan. I think this is one example of Japanese people actively accepting Poland.

For example, in terms of trade with Poland, Japan has already been overtaken by South Korea. We were overtaken by China long ago. Therefore, I thought Japanese language courses would decrease, but they remain as energetic as ever, and are actually increasing. Various universities want to somehow create Japanese language courses or departments. This cannot be explained by economics alone. The passion for the Japanese language and interest in Japan in Poland is constant.

In contrast, regarding things related to Poland in Japan, it is difficult to even find the letter "P." It only appears in national newspapers once or twice a year. The Polish language department at Tokyo University of Foreign Studies was established because of the Revolutions of 1989. If that opportunity had been missed, it probably could never have been done. Even now, only about 15 students study Polish per year, and there are no jobs for them.

Regarding culture, although it is at a low level, there has always been interest. That includes theater, film, graphic arts, and music. It continues very modestly and does not influence the general public, but interestingly, in Japan's case, there is not only a Chopin Society but also a Szymanowski Society, a Moniuszko Society, and a Paderewski Society.

I think Polish people would be surprised by this.

When the Cold War ended and Poland democratized, and they considered their future path, they decided to return to a Europe that shares their values—or rather, to entrust their future to Europe.

And finally, in 2004, they achieved EU membership. I think Poland is the largest beneficiary among the 28 member states.

That's true.

Economically, becoming a member of the EU clearly led to Poland's current prosperity. In terms of security, they have maintained peace and stability to this day by following a policy of valuing relations with NATO and the United States.

The problem there is that recently the EU itself has lost a lot of centripetal force and is deepening its turmoil. There are immigration issues and populist movements. A clear example is Brexit.

In a situation where the EU is losing its centripetal force, how much can Poland work toward the ideal direction of the EU while receiving benefits from it? For Japan, it is important for Europe to be prosperous and strong, and I pray that Poland will play a constructive role within that.

I believe Poland is an entity from which Japan can learn many things regarding freedom, democracy, and ethnic issues. As Mr. Yamanaka said, I hope they return to the direction of protecting universal values such as justice, democracy, freedom, and human rights within the EU.

Currently, a state of political division and confusion continues, so as a researcher of Poland, I hope they can overcome that.

Since this year is the 100th anniversary of diplomatic relations, various commemorative events are being planned. These include concerts, symposiums, workshops, and a "Chopin Exhibition" is also being organized.

It seems it will be held at the Hyogo Prefectural Museum of Art and other venues. In terms of art, the Polish Film Festival has been held since 2012 with director Jerzy Skolimowski as supervisor. Since the 1980s, Polish films have been screened at places like Iwanami Hall.

From my perspective, the longest-running and most constant exchange where artists have close personal relationships is in graphic arts, especially posters. And perhaps theater as well.

In 2013, Prime Minister Abe visited Poland for the first time in 10 years for a Japanese Prime Minister. In 2015, then-President Komorowski visited Japan.

Furthermore, a working holiday system started in 2015, allowing young people to engage in exchange while working at their destination.

As our bilateral relations reach their centenary, I hope that exchange will progress even further in the future.