[Special Feature: The Great Kanto Earthquake and Keio University] The Great Kanto Earthquake and Yukichi Fukuzawa

2023/08/21

Currently, the special exhibition "Sone Chujo Architectural Design Office and Keio University" is being held at the Keio History Museum in Mita. The Sone Chujo Architectural Design Office was an architectural firm that designed more than 30 buildings for Keio University from the late Meiji era to the 1930s. Its representative work is the Mita Media Center (Keio University Library) (Old Building), completed in 1912 shortly after the office opened, which is a magnificent red-brick Gothic building. It was co-directed by Tatsuzo Sone, who studied as a first-generation student under Josiah Conder, the father of modern Japanese architecture, and Seiichiro Chujo, who studied under Sone's contemporary Kingo Tatsuno. It was called the largest and best private architectural firm in pre-war Japan. This exhibition is an attempt to consider why such a long and deep history was carved between this office and the Juku, and the exhibition is divided into two parts, before and after the Great Kanto Earthquake.

In preparing for the exhibition, I thought about "Yukichi Fukuzawa and Architecture." Was Fukuzawa interested in architecture? The answer I reached is YES. In "Things Western (Seiyō Jijō)" published in 1866, Fukuzawa represents the world changing drastically due to the Industrial Revolution with an interesting illustration. Telegraph lines are stretched across the globe, with personified information running over them. Depicted below are tools developed through the invention of the steam engine: steam locomotives, steamships, balloons, and towering "high-rise buildings." If the inclusion of high-rise buildings in this picture means that the Industrial Revolution dramatically developed the scale and quality of buildings and expanded human potential, then Fukuzawa was indeed interested in the progress of architectural technology.

In fact, there were many engineers involved in architecture around Fukuzawa. Fukuzawa's close friend Saburo Utsunomiya was the person who succeeded in the domestic production of Portland cement and firebricks, which are essential for construction, and his disciple Sadakichi Nakamura became the husband of Fukuzawa's eldest daughter, Sato. Tatsuzo Sone was in the same class as Sadakichi at the Imperial College of Engineering (one of the predecessors of the Faculty of Engineering at the University of Tokyo), though in a different major, and he contributed a reminiscence to Utsunomiya's biography. Utsunomiya's wife and the wife of Fukuzawa's eldest son Ichitaro were sisters, and their brother was the architect Sannosuke Osawa.

The most decisive presence was Jukichi Fujimoto. He was the son of Fukuzawa's cousin Gentai Fujimoto from Nakatsu. He stayed with Fukuzawa, went through Keio University, and became an architect as a second-generation student of Conder at the Imperial College of Engineering. He designed the Old Jukukan-kyoku (Keio Corporate Administration) (1887), which was the first brick building of Keio University, but unfortunately passed away at a young age. One of the few reminiscences conveying his story was left in this journal in 1937 by none other than Tatsuzo Sone.

A major turning point for modern Japanese construction laws was the Nobi Earthquake on October 28, 1891. This inland earthquake, estimated at magnitude 8.0, caused brick buildings in the Gifu and Aichi areas to collapse one after another. On the other hand, Nagoya Castle escaped collapse. At a time when the full extent of the damage was not yet understood, Fukuzawa published an editorial titled "Earthquakes are the Great Test of Construction Methods" in the newspaper he managed, the Jiji Shinpo (dated November 1 of the same year).

In this editorial, Fukuzawa considers architectural technology, arguing that since the use of bricks in Japan was still in its infancy, perhaps the engineers were unfamiliar with them, or perhaps they neglected the "internal construction methods" while only making the exterior Western-style. Or perhaps it was because "the geology and climate of the East and West are not the same." He suggests that brick buildings should be considered in a "testing" period for performance until they are proven suitable for Japan. He proposes avoiding their use for storing "precious items" or for "residences where one sleeps and eats," limiting them to use as storehouses for "coarse goods." Using his favorite metaphors, such as "If an architectural engineer installs a gutter according to Western methods because the geology of the East and West is different, Japanese rain does not fall in the Western style and water will overflow," he warns against simply imitating the form of Western architecture. He concludes, "I only pray that both the government and the people will take this earthquake as a great test of our construction methods and pay even more attention whenever there is a new construction."

In other words, he points out the need to scientifically and calmly determine whether Western architectural technology, which had only recently been introduced, is suitable for Japan. This can be rephrased as an expression of the spirit of "jitsugaku (science)" as a Science that seeks to learn and progress from natural disasters rather than simply lamenting them as something beyond human wisdom.

Whether this discourse by Fukuzawa was effective, or simply due to budgetary issues (likely the latter), Keio University continued to build primarily wooden buildings thereafter. Even after Tatsuzo Sone and Katsuya Yasuoka—who were involved in the development of the Marunouchi office district known as "London Block" under Heigoro Shoda, a businessman called the chief steward of Mitsubishi and Chair, Keio University Board of Councillors—took charge of Keio University's architecture after Fukuzawa's death, the era of wooden buildings continued.

In 1912, the library built with donations for the 50th anniversary of the founding of Keio University became the first brick building at Keio University in nearly a quarter-century since Jukichi Fujimoto's Old Jukukan-kyoku (Keio Corporate Administration). Regardless of whether Fukuzawa's points regarding the Nobi Earthquake were consciously considered, Juku officials, along with the scholarly Tatsuzo Sone who researched the latest and best technologies, were preoccupied with structural research. To borrow the expression of the first Library Director Kazusada Tanaka, they "were given a set space and a set amount of money, and strove to do their best within those limits" (June 1912 issue of this journal).

The structure was brick with some reinforced concrete and steel frames. At this time, the officials were particularly passionate about fireproofing. The stacks had six levels including the basement, and each floor had a central corridor and stairs with bookshelves on both sides, partitioned by thick firewalls and iron doors. Furthermore, fire shutters were installed outside the glass windows, and wire-reinforced glass was used for the high windows on the top floor. Since the adjacent buildings were wooden, one can sense the intense passion the owner and designer poured into protecting the books, which are the foundation of scholarship.

Tanaka boasted, "The engineers and we had a very close relationship, and we created this by investigating without reservation; in this respect, we were very fortunate and the engineers worked very hard to produce this," and even wrote, "I believe there are few places even abroad that have done this much fireproofing."

Despite the budget constraints of a private institution, there was an extraordinary ambition to use the best technology.

Keio University could not escape damage in the Great Kanto Earthquake of September 1, 1923. The Old Jukukan-kyoku (Keio Corporate Administration) designed by Jukichi Fujimoto became unusable and was demolished after aftershocks in January of the following year. The library also developed cracks in various places, and the octagonal tower in particular had to be demolished and rebuilt.

The Public Hall completed in 1915, also known as "Keio-za," was a steel-framed brick building with a beautiful exterior that was the pride of Keio students, but the facade was heavily damaged and repaired with a complete change to its front appearance. At this time, Keio University raised 300,000 yen by issuing "Juku Bonds" at 50 yen per unit for the first time in its history (see the separate editorial article). The first reinforced concrete school building of Keio University, completed in 1920, escaped damage, and damage to all other wooden school buildings was minor.

A stroke of luck for Keio University was that it was not caught in the fires. The library's thorough fireproofing did not have to demonstrate its true worth, but the sense of security must have been great. The fact that the library of Tokyo Imperial University in Hongo burned for three days and was completely destroyed, losing 700,000 volumes including precious primary sources, was a great loss to the Japanese academic community. There were few fires around the Mita Campus, and classrooms were opened from the day of the earthquake until the end of September to take in many disaster victims.

Here, I would like to draw attention to the separate article "Reflections on the Great Earthquake" by Kiroku Hayashi (1872-1950), which appeared at the beginning of the first Mita-hyoron (official monthly journal published by Keio University Press) after the earthquake (November 1923 issue). Hayashi is the person who took office as President shortly after writing this piece and steered the great development of Keio University toward earthquake recovery and the construction of the Hoshiyoshi Campus. He became a Juku teacher immediately after graduating from the college Department of Literature in 1895. He was a high-spirited young man who reportedly visited Fukuzawa frequently to strongly advocate for reforms, saying "Keio University should be like this." Perhaps found interesting by Fukuzawa, he was quickly appointed as the head of the Keio Futsubu School. He later wrote, "I, who had just reached the age of twenty-seven... must have appeared quite cheeky, and some people must have felt unpleasant. Looking back now, I cannot help but feel a bit of a cold sweat" (Seiritsu no Ki).

He is also known for delivering a legendary speech in Keio University history titled "Farewell to the Nineteenth Century" at the "Century Transition Party" held by Keio University on New Year's Eve as the 19th century ended and the 20th century began, which captivated the audience.

I believe the main duty of nineteenth-century civilization was to break down medieval superstition and tyranny, and also to increase the material welfare of mankind. And the transition from the development of human rights to the manifestation of humanity, from the self-government of the people to the republic of mankind, and from material pleasure to spiritual happiness, will surely be the path that future civilization should take. Yes, we shall not say much now. Depart, nineteenth century; you have fulfilled your duty well. Come, twentieth century; your future is vast.

While he depicted the arrival of the 20th century brightly in this way, he concluded by explaining the responsibility of the Juku in the new century as an era of severe trials.

Looking back, although our Empire of Japan has worked diligently on various reforms since the latter half of the nineteenth century and made unprecedented progress in history, there are still many remnants and legacies of the previous century. Old thoughts, old systems, and old customs are piled high everywhere like detestable decaying bones and rotten flesh. To plan for the development of a new civilization, we must first start by sweeping away this filth. Gentlemen, Keio University has traditionally prided itself as a warrior of the army of civilization. I hope that upon sending off the nineteenth century and welcoming the new world of the twentieth century, the ambitions of our party will be particularly clear, brilliant, and grand.

Hayashi appealed for the awareness of responsibility, stating that as they must now fight against "old thoughts, old systems, and old customs," our role in emphasizing the civilization of human wisdom becomes increasingly heavy. At this time, Hayashi was 28 years old. Soon after, he studied in Europe under what was then the only overseas study system for a private institution and became a pioneer in the study of diplomatic history.

The Great Kanto Earthquake occurred when Hayashi was 51 years old. How did Japan at the time of the earthquake appear in his eyes?

After first outlining the damage from the earthquake, Hayashi celebrates the good fortune that the damage to the Juku was not immense. He recalls the historical event in 1868 during the turmoil of the Restoration when Keio University continued its studies without interruption and celebrated the fact that "the light of learning had not fallen to the ground" on the Chugen holiday of that year—meaning they managed to keep scholarship alive—and writes that he feels a "similar emotion."

He then discusses what should be learned from "this great calamity." When faced with natural disasters, humans tend to give up, thinking they can only pity themselves as tiny, powerless beings, but Hayashi says, "It is the mission of civilization to conquer nature." He sees the ultimate goal of "conquest" as earthquake prediction, but expects this to be "impossible for the time being." If that is the case, he asks whether the maximum effort has been made with today's scientific standards, stating, "It should be possible even with today's science to complete earthquake-resistant measures in ordinary times and extremely reduce earthquake disasters."

To idly import the construction methods of countries without earthquakes into our earthquake-prone country without conducting thorough special research should be called the sin of scholarly negligence; it is truly a failure to do what human effort should do. This is even more true regarding fires.

In post-earthquake Japan, theories of "divine punishment" (tenken-ron) and "divine grace" (tenkei-ron) were advocated. Divine punishment meant a punishment from heaven. It was said that this earthquake was a scolding from heaven for the decadence of Japanese morality. Furthermore, the theory of divine grace held that this disaster was given by heaven as an opportunity for social reform. In particular, Eiichi Shibusawa famously advocated "divine punishment," stating that the "imperial culture" that had developed in Tokyo and Yokohama since the Meiji Restoration had "completely collapsed," and asked, "Was this culture truly in accordance with reason and the way of heaven? How was recent politics, and was there not a tendency for the economic world to aim for private gain and greed? In a sense, I am awestruck as it being divine punishment" (Hochi Shimbun, evening edition, September 10 of the same year), advocating the unification of morality and economy. What about Hayashi?

Even with our current infantile civilization, if we fully utilize what science teaches us, there is undoubtedly still great room for protecting human happiness. If this calamity truly contains the allegory of so-called divine punishment, it should be interpreted first and foremost as a reprimand for the excessively unscientific nature of the Japanese people's social organization.

Hayashi demands being thoroughly scientific. He effectively and decisively rejects the theory of divine punishment, which is a spiritualism unrelated to human progress against the danger of earthquakes. Furthermore, regarding the massacre of Koreans and the Amakasu Incident, he severely blames the Japanese people's "ignorance," lack of "composure," and the evil habits of "not respecting the law" and "disregarding human life," not softening his criticism of the "absolute disgrace of Japanese civilization," "most uncivilized great scandals," "narrow-minded evil customs of the elders," and "ignoring humanity." He concludes as follows:

Now, the entire attention of our nation's government and people is concentrated on the problem of reconstructing the imperial capital. It goes without saying that reconstruction is the urgent task at hand. However, while our citizens strive in this reconstruction work, they must also aim to sweep away the various evil habits mentioned above. ... If the many scandals that occurred during this calamity serve as a stimulus to break down evil habits and prompt a new spirit of civilization, then the calamity will not have been without meaning.

Far from aging, Hayashi's writing has become even sharper. In the end, he remained a single-minded young man who consistently pursued the "breaking down of evil habits" and "civilization" since shortly after graduating from the Juku, which is consistent with Fukuzawa's lifelong stance, including immediately after the Nobi Earthquake.

Readers of this journal may remember the sense of human helplessness in the face of nature and the kind of abnormal excitement where true and false information flew about during great disasters, including the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake and the Great East Japan Earthquake. However, the history of the predecessors of Keio University mentioned above tells us that the path is not to stop there, simply look up at the sky and lament, or surrender oneself to the flood of information.

What happened, and what was lacking? What needs to be clarified from now on? The source of the perspective that coolly points these out is scholarship, which is what we value. The fact that this journal placed Hayashi's essay at the beginning immediately after the earthquake has an important meaning that is worth looking back on when considering what kind of thinking Keio University, the school founded by Fukuzawa, aimed to spread and will continue to aim for.