[Special Feature: Encountering Books] Mayumi Tsuda: An Introduction to Edo Period Publishing

2023/08/07

Books from the Edo period are the most accessible type of classical Japanese texts. Even without visiting a special reading room, you can find a few on the open shelves of the Mita Media Center or lined up at the storefronts of secondhand bookstores. In the FutureLearn videos that Keio University shares with the world, Oya Shobo in Jinbocho is featured; the sight of books stacked horizontally is spectacular and shows the original way Japanese-style books (wahon) were stored. If you are interested, please touch them gently with clean hands. The sensation of turning thin washi paper, the texture, and the atmosphere of the book itself cannot be felt through database images. I believe that doing so allows one to share the same field of vision as the people who once held them.

That said, images published online by holding institutions should also be effectively utilized, so I have included QR codes instead of illustrations. It might be interesting to see for yourself how they are made public ("Japanese Culture Through Rare Books").

Books inherently have qualities where their size, shape, and binding reflect their content, but in the Edo period, when commercial publishing began, economic reasons were added to this, leading to the further standardization of book formats and bindings.

A striking example of this is "Kusa-zoshi," a type of reading material produced in Edo where pictures and text intermingle on the page. These had a wide readership ranging from daimyo to children in tenement houses, and boasted the highest number of copies and titles published. In this genre, the number of pages was strictly fixed. Not only that, but the intricacy of the illustrations—which directly affected the cost of carving and printing the woodblocks—and the atmosphere of the covers were kept consistent. The reason was the equalization of production costs, as publishers engaged in a practice called "hongae" (book exchange), where they physically swapped new publications of equal value.

Following this genre, one encounters periods where books were bound in unusual sizes with large margins for rental bookstores. There are also cases where, when reprinting a book to match market changes, publishers did not hesitate to split a single continuous illustration spanning two facing pages into separate upper and lower volumes. This suggests that books were products of a market economy and that, for publishers, the form and binding of a book were sometimes more important than its content. The process of making these Kusa-zoshi is enjoyably depicted in Jippensha Ikku's "Atariya Shidaho Toiya" (The Lucky Publisher, 1802) (National Diet Library Collection: "Atariya Shidaho Toiya").

Now, generally circulated books were "fukuro-toji" (pouch binding), made by folding a single sheet of paper in half. A cover was attached, and four small holes were made on the right side for "yotsume-toji" (four-hole binding) using silk thread. A single sheet of paper used inside the pouch binding is called a "cho" (leaf), and locations are indicated as "Icho-omote" (leaf 1 front) or "Icho-ura" (leaf 1 back). Connoisseurs of the past would say "1-o" or "1-u."

It is easy to take apart a bound book, and owners could easily modify them. Therefore, the basic rule of researching classical texts—even for printed books—is to look at as many copies of the same title as possible. This is because it is difficult to definitively say how a book was produced based on just one copy. Even in the first edition, different versions exist, such as deluxe editions with different paper, formats, or bindings, and advertisements also change. Even in reprinted versions, clues for considering that specific book or the history of publishing may remain. Of course, the history carved into each individual book is also different.

Book formats were based on standard paper sizes. There were two main lineages: Obon (large book, approx. 27cm x 20cm) based on Mino-gami paper, and Hanshibon (half-paper book, approx. 24cm x 17cm) based on Hanshi paper. Since there was a tendency to make books larger during eras when they were precious, it depends on the period, but generally, Obon were "mononohon"—traditionally high-status specialized books. Hanshibon were more general books, such as introductory books that simplified specialized content, or literary works with a sophisticated atmosphere and thorough research if they were for entertainment. For example, some "yomihon" (reading books) like Kyokutei Bakin's "Nanso Satomi Hakkenden" (The Eight Dog Chronicles) used this format.

Sizes created by cutting the above two in half were also utilized. Half the size of an Obon is a Chubon (medium book). This format was used for practical reading materials or lighter works, including various guidebooks, "oraimono" (textbooks for temple schools), practice books for musical storytelling (Edo scores focused mainly on lyrics), "yomihon" intended for lighter reading, "kokkeibon" (funny books) like Yajikita, "ninjobon" (books of sentiment) featuring the latest fashions and love stories, and the aforementioned "Kusa-zoshi." Half the size of a Hanshibon is a Kobon (small book). These were used for books intended for portability, such as simple vocabularies and dictionaries for waka, kanshi, and haikai. Among reading materials, "sharebon" (witty books) containing information about the pleasure quarters also used this size.

Other names to remember include Yokobon (horizontal book), which bound practical books on the short side to create a landscape format; Tatenagabon (vertically long book), made in elegant imitation of Chinese books; and Masugatabon (square book), which is nearly square and modeled after the format of Heian period poem-tales. "Oku no Hosomichi" (The Narrow Road to the Deep North) is a representative example of Masugatabon. While general haiku books were Hanshibon, historical masterpieces were intentionally made in that specific format.

Books circulating in the Edo period were not necessarily only printed ones. In refined literature, there was a strong sense that handwritten copies were more prestigious, and rental bookstores had many hand-copied books. A business of copying text upon request also existed. Edo period books must be viewed with this culture of manuscripts and rental books in mind. However, there is no doubt that printing, which allowed for the mass production of copies at once, developed commercial publishing in the Edo period and caused a revolution in the enjoyment of books compared to previous eras. This printing technology also changed according to market trends, and products responding to new demands were born; an overview is provided below.

17th Century: While printing itself had been done for a long time, primarily centered around temples, the metal movable type printing technology from the Korean Peninsula and Jesuit missionaries brought to Japan at the end of the Sengoku period had a major impact. From the Emperor and the Tokugawa family to the general public, publishing using copper or wood movable type was attempted. As a technologically developing nation, Japan was immature in casting metal type, so wood type was widely used. Compared to modern type, this era is called the "Kokatsuji-ban" (early movable type edition) period.

Although many details of these early movable type editions remain unknown, influences from both the East and West are visible. Ultimately, a method of printing by tightening and fixing wood type from the surroundings became established in Japan. Oriental books have a "kyokaku" (borderline) surrounding the main text; when made with this method, the vertical and horizontal lines do not perfectly meet. If there are gaps in the corners of the border, it can be identified as one of these old (and expensive) early movable type editions.

On the other hand, a beautiful group of books called Sagabon, created by Hon'ami Koetsu and Suminokura Soan, insisted on the handwritten style of Japanese script. They were pioneers in providing the full text of classical literature that general people previously could not read. At the same time, the illustrations included in works like "The Tales of Ise" were used as models for handwritten picture scrolls and picture books.

As the number of readers increased, printing switched to "seiban" (block printing) using woodblocks in the mid-17th century. Early movable type editions had to be disassembled after printing a few leaves, requiring the type to be reset for reprints. Worn-out, frequently used type often spoiled the beauty of the print and caused unevenness in ink density. In contrast, while carving woodblocks was expensive, the number of copies a block could withstand increased, allowing for multiple reprints, and the woodblocks themselves became the property of the publisher. Furthermore, because the page layout could be used freely, it was suitable for Japanese writing, including kanbun marks, rubi (glosses), and the flowing "renmentai" style mixing kanji and hiragana.

Once the switch to block printing occurred, new products began to emerge. The pictorial maps of the Tokaido road made in the late 17th century are a symbol of this. "Shokoku Anken Kaibun no Ezu," whose publication year is unclear, is considered a groundbreaking work that placed illustrations alongside the text of preceding text-only travel guides. According to Kingo Imai, who compiled the "Dochuki Taisei," the ukiyo-e master Juzo Suzuki identified the artist as Hishikawa Moronobu. This Moronobu also handled the illustrations for the 1690 publication "Tokaido Bunken Ezu," considered a pioneer of pictorial maps. Created by Ochochi Doin, this map of the journey from Kyoto to Edo was produced with attention to direction and scale, and was provided in the form of an "orihon" (folding book) folded zigzag like a scroll. This is a book unique to block printing. In this way, many books in the Edo period, regardless of genre, began to include many illustrations.

Furthermore, ukiyo-e, of which Moronobu is considered the founder, includes both "nikuhitsuga" (hand-painted) and prints. The latter became popular products for "soshinya" (bookstores) selling affordable books in Edo. While Kyoto had many artists who painted by hand, there was a shortage in the emerging city of Edo. Since many men—both samurai and townspeople—came to Edo from all over the country for work, inexpensive and visually pleasing pictures were welcomed.

18th Century: After the transition to block printing, there were no major changes in printing technology, but the skills of the carvers and printers improved significantly. The most remarkable development in the 18th century was the birth of "Nishiki-e" (brocade pictures), which could be called a color revolution. Ukiyo-e were initially colored by hand and eventually printed with a few overlapping colors, but Nishiki-e is said to have begun in 1765 when Suzuki Harunobu was commissioned to create "egoyomi" (picture calendars showing only the long months of the lunar calendar) with many overlapping brilliant colors. These were not commercially sold; instead, the technology was refined through calendar exchange parties patronized by the hatamoto Kyosen (Jinshiro Okubo). In this way, technological innovation was nurtured through private editions of ukiyo-e where production costs were no object, and then spread to general sales. Booksellers who managed skilled craftsmen must have undertaken the publication of books and "surimono" (single-sheet prints) made for various social gatherings, but in the case of private editions, the names of the people who undertook them do not appear on the books or ukiyo-e, so the actual situation remains unknown.

In Kitao Masanobu's "Gozonji no Shobaimono" (The Well-Known Commodities, 1782), which personified the publishing situation of the time, Nishiki-e is personified as a top-ranking courtesan of Yoshiwara. Less than 20 years after its birth, it was called "Edo-e" (Edo pictures) and had become a representative souvenir of Edo. The history of ukiyo-e can be viewed through the collection of Professor Sei'ichiro Takahashi, who was a professor of economic history.

("The History of Ukiyo-e Through the Takahashi Collection")

19th Century: In the late 1850s, the precursors of modern movable type began among scholars of Western learning, but meanwhile, woodblock printing technology reached its peak during this period. The skill showed even more brilliance after the publishing controls of the Tenpo Reforms (1842). The Shogunate took notice of the Kusa-zoshi covers that used colorful Nishiki-e and, as part of sumptuary laws, banned the coloring of covers, claiming it led to price hikes. At that time, Edo booksellers created very beautiful covers by layering many shades of black ink. Some are beautiful books where the carving and printing techniques are vivid to the eye, including "karazuri" (embossing patterns without ink). Later, when the Tenpo Reforms ended prematurely, as if the restraints were removed, they changed the paper for covers and frontispieces to even more expensive materials and created gorgeous, elaborate books.

In 1847, at the Royal Printing Office in Vienna, one of the books previously presented to the Emperor by Siebold was reproduced using metal type for cursive script and copper plates (National Diet Library Collection: Vienna Edition "Ukiyogata Rokumai Byobu"). It was the work "Ukiyogata Rokumai Byobu" (Six-Panel Screen in the Floating World Style, published 1821) by Ryutei Tanehiko with illustrations by Utagawa Kunisada, which is considered the most difficult type of Kusa-zoshi. The enthusiasm is astonishing, but the woodblock print that served as the original has finer lines, such as in the hairline, than the copperplate engraving (National Diet Library Collection: Edo Edition "Ukiyogata Rokumai Byobu").

Books as commodities in the Edo period were greatly influenced by social trends and Shogunate policies, making them a mirror reflecting the politics, economy, and thought of the time. Keeping these changes in mind makes it easier to understand the nature of those books.

The 17th century was an era of enlightenment. People sought various information to live in the new Tokugawa era. It is particularly noteworthy that knowledge previously kept secret was made public through books. Once content was made public, it was annotated and summarized. By the end of this century, encyclopedic books aggregating various types of knowledge began to be produced.

The 18th century was an era of scholarship and "gesaku" (playful writing). Scholarship was encouraged by the Kyoho Reforms, and academic books, including previously banned Western learning, were actively published. Meanwhile, scholars began to write gesaku using their abundant knowledge. Especially in the mid-18th century, when Edo publishing began to surpass that of the Kyoto-Osaka region, people who admired the genius Hiraga Gennai greatly enjoyed the medium of books with their peers, and their attempts drove the world of books as commodities.

The 19th century was an era of commerce. With the Kansei Reforms, the samurai class withdrew from publishing gesaku, and entertainment books were produced more commercially using commercial writers. Books that had been sold only in Edo expanded their sales channels to the Kyoto-Osaka region and nationwide. It was also during this period that general women were added to the intended readership as a result of the promotion of education for commoners under the Kansei Reforms. For example, while cookbooks were made for professional experts (men) in the 17th century, it was only in this century that they were finally intended for general households.

Finally, the most important thing to consider regarding Edo publishing is the Shogunate's publishing controls. Books that were widely sold and read (regardless of whether they were printed or handwritten) were subject to regulation. After the Kyoho Reforms, the "kabunakama" (guilds) authorized by the Shogunate also became organizations for censoring violations of those prohibitions.

The foundational laws for subsequent publishing regulations were those of the Kyoho Reforms in 1722. Specifically: 1. Do not publish reckless heterodoxies regarding matters that have become social common sense. 2. Erotic books are to be discontinued. 3. Do not write incorrect things about people's lineages or ancestors (do not create causes for conflict). 4. Clearly state the names of the producers. 5. Mention of Gongen-sama (Ieyasu) or the Current House (Tokugawa) is unnecessary. — Adhere to the above and undergo censorship.

Based on these, the Kansei and Tenpo Reforms added language regarding sumptuary laws, and regulations were gradually strengthened, including the censorship organization. In particular, regarding the political topics of the time implied by point 5, punishments were handed out to Hayashi Shihei's "Kaikoku Heidan" (Military Discussion of a Maritime Nation, 1791), which made important proposals regarding coastal defense; Kusa-zoshi works that poked fun at the fall of Tanuma Okitsugu and celebrated the appearance of Matsudaira Sadanobu; and Nanpo's "Hokkai Idan" (Strange Tales of the Northern Sea, a handwritten "jitsuroku-tai" novel, 1808), which rewritten the 1806-7 Russian attacks on Ezo (the Bunka Invasion) as a great victory for the Japanese army. Even if it seemed to benefit the Tokugawa, one must not mention matters related to the Current House.

Failure to keep these prohibitions in mind risks misreading. For example, ukiyo-e based on classical literature were produced immediately after the Tenpo Reforms, but it is very dangerous to read them simply as illustrations of the classics. This is because the Tenpo Reforms banned kabuki actors, courtesans, and female entertainers—the previous "money-maker" subjects—from ukiyo-e and Kusa-zoshi, and these were produced as substitute "bijin-ga" (pictures of beautiful women). Utagawa Toyokuni III's (Kunisada I) "Hyakunin Isshu Esho" pretends to be a serious commentary immediately after the reforms when enforcement was strict, but gradually the "Genji-ko" icon from Ryutei Tanehiko's "Nise Murasaki Inaka Genji" (The False Murasaki and a Country Genji)—which was banned during the Tenpo Reforms and illustrated by the same artist—is featured, and the world of that book becomes more prominent. Furthermore, if Edo period palace maids are depicted in works with titles hinting at the Tale of Genji, such as Toyokuni III's "Ima Genji Nishiki-e Awase" or his disciple Kunisada II's "Murasaki Shikibu Genji Karuta," it is almost certainly a world derived from "Nise Murasaki Inaka Genji," where the Tale of Genji, the Onin War, and contemporary Edo are triple-layered. Just as in Ningyo Joruri and Kabuki, stories of the Tokugawa era were often disguised as other eras in light of prohibitions. Unless one reads commercial works of the Edo period while understanding these unique storytelling conventions, contemporary regulations, and trends of the time, one will fall into the pitfall of great misreading.

The reason for the banning of "Nise Murasaki Inaka Genji" remained unknown for a long time, but recently, research by Satoru Sato using high-resolution microscopes has shed some light. Despite the sumptuary laws, exceptionally high-quality paper was being used. This is one of the results of research integrating the humanities and sciences.

As a supplementary lecture, I am providing a link to a video discussing reading the characters in Edo period books and the recent trend of using AI to read cursive script (kuzushiji) ("Classical Texts and Kuzushiji").